Visual Web-Based User Manuals Essay Example

Visual Web-Based User Manuals Essay Visual Web-Based User Manuals Name: Course: Institution: We will write a custom essay sample on Visual Web-Based User Manuals specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Visual Web-Based User Manuals specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Visual Web-Based User Manuals specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Instructor: Date: Techniques Visual web-based user manuals are instructions or user guides on educational websites. Since innovation has enabled online learning, it is important for instructors to employ effective techniques by incorporating basic active learning principles in the website’s special features. The fundamental aspect in this regard is to develop learning objectives that will help the users to identify what they are required to know by the end of the course. Technical resources and pre-existing software must also be put into consideration in the development of an interactive user interface. The instructor should therefore ensure compatibility and convenience to enable easy access by the user and that more information is available. Effectiveness and interactivity is also enhanced by securing commitment of all users such as the students, faculty, administrators and development of portals to link all of them. The use of hyperlinks, online communication and multimedia are effective when lecture contents are integrated with them creatively. The creative use of slideshows, sound, texts and images should be moderated to avoid deviation from the learning objectives. They should also be aligned with instructional design. Hyperlinks will allow the user to navigate through the pages in the educational websites. Video and audio conferencing over the internet, online discussion, emails and chartrooms provide comprehensive online communication with an effective feedback system. The user can ask questions and clarify certain topics to gauge their degree of understanding. Instructors can enhance the leaning process by creating, simple, efficient and attractive web pages. They should also provide opportunities for self-assessm ent, learning that is problem based and self-directed. On implementation, hyperlinks and online communication should be verified and monitored periodically to prevent difficulty in accessing the web-based user manuals. Benefits and Challenges There are several benefits of providing web-based manuals. Multimedia and graphics incorporated in the web-based manuals makes them attractive to the users, hence motivates them to look through and understand. The inclusion of hyperlinks allows for easy and efficient navigation of the web pages. The user is able to access more information on the particular course if techniques of online communication, hyperlinks and multimedia are applied with precision. Visual web-based manuals also have an advantage of larger space for sufficient packaging as compared to paper manual and they reduce tediousness. Challenges include difficulty in using the manuals among some learners, incompatibility with different web browsers and development of effective navigation through hyperlinks. If the user does not have online connectivity, he or she cannot access the manual. Therefore a paper manual must be produced along with the web-based manual and this increases costs.

Definition and Examples of Sound Change in English

Definition and Examples of Sound Change in English In historical linguistics  and phonology, sound change has been traditionally defined as any appearance of a new phenomenon in the phonetic/phonological structure of a language (Roger Lass in Phonology:  An Introduction to Basic Concepts, 1984). More simply, sound change might be described as any particular  change in the sound system of a language over a period of time. The drama of linguistic change, said  English lexicographer and philologist  Henry C. Wyld, is enacted not in manuscripts or in inscriptions, but in the mouths and minds of men (A Short History of English, 1927).   There are many types of sound change, including the following: Aphesis and ApocopeAssimilation  Dissimilation and HaplologyLexical DiffusionMetanalysisMetathesisPrinciple of Least EffortProthesisSyncope See Examples and Observations below. Also, see: The Great Vowel ShiftGrimms LawIsoglossLanguage ChangeMutationPhonologyPronunciationWord Boundaries Examples and Observations An understanding of sound change is truly important for historical linguistics in general, and this needs to be stressed- it plays an extremely important role in the comparative method and hence also in linguistic reconstruction, in internal reconstruction, in detecting loanwords, and in determining whether languages are related to one another.(Lyle Campbell, Historical Linguistics: An Introduction, 2nd ed. MIT Press, 2004)Pronunciation of SchwaThere is a growing body of evidence that frequently used words quite often get affected early- an observation first made in the 19th century. . . .Consider the words adultery, century, cursory, delivery, desultory, elementary, every, factory, nursery, slavery. If possible, write them down on a piece of paper and ask several friends to read them out loud. Better still, get people to read sentences which include the words. For example: A cursory glance at the newspaper suggests that adultery is on the increase in this century. If you think slave ry has been abolished, go and look at the factory at the end of our road. Every mother will tell you that nursery schools are a mixed blessing. Make a careful note of how the crucial words are pronounced, and see if your results agree with those of a linguist who carried out an investigation of this type.The investigator noted that, according to the dictionary, all words which are spelt with -ary, -ery, -ory or -ury are pronounced somewhat as if they rhymed with furry. The vowel preceding r is a so-called schwa, a short indeterminate sound written phonetically as [É™], and sometimes represented orthographically as er (British English) or uh (American English). In practice the schwa was not always pronounced. It was usually omitted in common words such as ev(e)ry, fact(o)ry, nurs(e)ry, which were pronounced as if they were spelt evry, factry, nursry with two syllables only. In slightly less common words, such as delivery, there was fluctuation. Some people inserted a schwa, others omitted it. A schwa was retained in the least common words, such as desultory, cursory.(Jean Aitchison, Language Change: Progress or Decay? 3rd ed. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001) Theories of Sound ChangeVarious theories of sound change, some of them proposed a century ago or earlier were current in the [19]70s. There was a longstanding traditional view about sound change being due to speakers modifying their pronunciation either to make it easier- to expend less effort- or to make speech clearer for the sake of the listener. Another one was espoused by Halle (1962) that language change, including sound change, served to improve grammar by making it more cognitively simple to compute. Postal (1968) suggested it was due to speakers desire for novelty, i.e., sounds change for the same reason that hemlines and haircuts change. Lightner (1970) claimed it was to avoid homophonydespite the abundant counter-examples that show homophony as the result of sound change. These are all teleological accounts, that is to say, they assume that the changes are purposeful, i.e., that they [are] motivated by a goal of some sort . . ..(John Ohala, The Listener As a Source of Soun d Change: An Update. The Initiation of Sound Change: Perception, Production, and Social Factors, ed. by Maria-Josep Solà © and Daniel Recasens. John Benjamins, 2012) The Neogrammarian Regularity HypothesisIn the 1870s a group of linguists now generally referred to as the Neogrammarians created a lot of attention, controversy, and excitement with the claim that unlike all other linguistic change, sound change is regular and operates without exceptions.This Neogrammarian or regularity hypothesis led to a great deal of valuable and interesting research. However, as can be expected, such a strong claim did not remain without a good deal of often quite vociferous opposition. . . .[I]t is important to note that the neogrammarian regularity hypothesis has proved to be enormously fruitful, no matter how accurate it may be in fact. For it forces the linguist to look for explanations of apparent irregularity, either by establishing a non-phonetic source or through a better formulation of a given sound change. Either way we learn more about the history of a given language and about the nature of linguistic change than if we subscribe to a view that does not expect regularity in sound change.(Hans Henrich Hock, Principles of Historical Linguistics, 2nd ed. Walter de Gruyter, 1991)

Aberdour Rocky Shore Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Aberdour Rocky Shore - Essay Example The report will be aimed at addressing certain issues regarding the analysis of the information obtained through the collected data. Comparison between the Zonation Patterns of Site A and Site B Site A and Site B do not appear to have similar zonation patterns. For example, at a vertical height of 4.79 m above the water line at Site A, the % cover statistics for orange and grey lichens are 5 and 30 respectively. Above 4.82 m from the water line at Site B, the % cover statistics for orange and grey lichens are 5 and 5 respectively. Hence, the scope of symbiotic colony of fungi and algae is limited at Site B. Again, % cover of fucus vesiculosus in Site A at .83 m above the water line is 30 while that in Site B at the same height is 10. Site B, therefore, appears to be less habitable by the seaweed population. This can be suggestively explained by topological variations. Rock structures in Site B appear to be more rugged, hence there are greater tidal activities in the splash fringe lev el. This might have given rise to a washing mechanism that created different zonation patterns in Site B as compared with Site A. Differences between Exposed and Sheltered Shores In the exposed rocky shore, splash zones are large and there is maximum splashing from due to the waves. The area is dominated by organisms which can cling on tightly (for example, limpets and barnacles).

Theory of contract law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Theory of contract law - Essay Example The primary object of courts while construction of a contract is to determine and give effect to the intention of the parties. This fact is elucidated by the eminent judges such as Chief Justice Brian in 1478 held 'that the intention of a man cannot be tried, for the Devil himself knows not the intent of a man'1. And nineteenth century judges such as Lord Eldon who in kennedy v Lee said that it was not the task of his 'to see that both parties really meant the same thing, but only that both gave their assent to that proposition which, be it what it may, defacto arises out the terms of their corresondence.2 And Austin said that 'when we speak of the intention of contracting parties, we mean the intention of the promissor or the intention of the promisee' and he also added that 'the sense in which it is to be inferred from the words used or from the transaction or from both that the one party gave and the other received it'3.Before essaying the subject it is significant to discuss conc isely on other prime factors of a valid contract to which intention of the parties is related to, such as Offer and acceptance and consideration.Offer: Consensus ad idem is the maxim on the offer and acceptance, which means meeting of minds. A contract is made out of an agreement and an agreement is made out of offer and acceptance that means in an agreement one party makes an offer and the other party accepts it. An offer may be an advertisement or a definite offer either to a particular person or to public at large. The law is settled in this respect in Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co4 in which the company made an offer through an advertisement offering 100 to any person who is affected with influenza after using smoke balls. The plaintiff Carlill has claimed for 100 from the company since she was effected influenza. The company defended that (i) the transaction was only a bet with in the meaning of gaming acts (ii) the advertisement was not intended to create a binding obligatio n (iii) there was no offer to any particular person (iv) no acceptance is notified by the plaintiff. The court of appeal has rejected the grounds taken by the defendant and allowed in favour of the plaintiff. The court while allowing held that there was an offer to the world at large, an offer can be made to the world at large and it also held that by making an offer to the world a contract is made with a limited parties who perform the conditions. Here we can observe that the intention of the advertisement was with an intention to create a legal obligation that is the reason the court has come to a conclusion of existence contract. Offer and an invitation to treat - Intention: The law of contract makes a distinction between offer and an invitation to treat. An invitation to treat does not make a binding contract. When a person responds to an invitation to treat makes an offer. The courts have made distinction between offer and an invitation to treat in auction sale and advertisements. In offer the intention of the parties to create legal obligation where as the in invitation to treat this intention to create legal obligation is premature. Harris v Nickerson5 In this case it was held that an advertisement specifying that goods will be sold by auction do not constitute a promise or offer. It is settled law that an advertisement without further qualification is not an offer to sell the goods but it is only an invitation to treat. The court observed the fact that the intention of the party making an advertisement is to receive the offers from the willing parties and he would select the best offer and intends to withdraw his invitation if he is not receiving the offer he is anticipating or he could accept, therefore there is no legal relationship exists at that particular point of time. The distinction between the offer and invitation to treat was clearly illustrated in Gibson v Manchester City of Council6. Acceptance: When one person makes an offer and such offer is accepted then becomes an agreement. Acceptance is an

Electrical conductor Essay Example for Free

Electrical conductor Essay This would increase the resistance of the wire. Another reason why the 60cm wire the highest resistance is that the ammeter and the voltmeter could have been read incorrectly. One reason why the 100cm wire and the 80cm wire had a smaller resistance than the 60cm wire is that the coils of wire could have touched. If this did happen the length of the wire would be shortened. The current would take the easiest route, this being the shorter one meaning the current wont have taken long to travel along the wire. The more coils that touched the more the length of wire would have been shortened. There would have been less collision between the atoms of the wire and the electrons of the current. Also as the current wont have had as far to travel the electrons wont have had to squeeze together for as long as predicted. If this did happen I predict using the graph that the 100cm wire was decreased to an estimated 58cm, and that the 80cm wire was reduced to an estimated 55cm. I cannot prove that this is true, it is just a prediction. The sketch below shows what the graph looked like: The sketch below shows how I expected the graph to look: Evaluation I think that the 60cm, 80cm and the 100cm wires were all anomalous results. I think that all of these results are anomalous because the 60cm wire had a higher resistance than the 80cm and the 100cm wires , however the 80cm and 100cm wires had a lower resistance than the 60cm wire. I cannot tell which of the above statement is correct. The results could be anomalous because the ammeter and voltmeters were read incorrectly. Making the 60cm wire have a higher resistance than it should have had, or resulting in the 80cm and 100cm wires have a lower resistance than it should have had. The coils of wire on the 80cm and the 100cm wire could have touched, resulting in the length of the wire being shortened. This therefore would reduce the resistance of the wire because the current would take the easies route, which is the shortest instead of taking the longest route around the coil. This means that there would have been less collisions between the atoms of the wire and the electrons of the current. Therefore the current would have flowed faster than expected. Also as the electrons wouldnt have had as far to travel as predicted they wouldnt have had to squeeze together for as long, meaning there would have been less collisions between electrons and other electrons. The 60cm wire could have already been used. This means that it could have still held an electrical charge which would increase the resistance of the wire. Also all of the ice in the boiling tube could have melted meaning that the temperature would have increased, resulting in the resistance being increased. If I could repeat the investigation again there would be a number of changes that I would make. One of these changes would to decrease the lengths of the wire. The 100cm wire was too long and it was difficult to wrap the wire around the boiling tube without any of the coils touching. Also I could have used a bigger boiling tube that had a wider diameter. It would be easier to wrap the wire around the boiling tube without any of the coils touching. Also if more repetitions were done there would be less chance of anomalous results appearing. If I did the experiment again I would change the ice after each experiment. Therefore none of the ice would melt completely and the temperature wouldnt rise I dont think that the voltmeter and ammeter were read incorrectly because there are no massive changes in the two reading on the table. If I was to repeat the investigation I would make sure that the wire was new wire that hadnt been previously used and that the wire came from the same strip. I wouldnt change my graph because I fell that it is clear and easy to see where each length of wire is. Bibliography Below is a list of web sites that I used to fin out background knowledge for the investigation: www. essaybank. co. uk www. goggle. com www. sciencefinder. org www. sciencenet. org Here is a list of books that I used in my investigation:Â   Coordinated Science Physics Also I use Encarta 99 to find out information for the investigation.

Concepts of Computer Networking

Concepts of Computer Networking CHAPTER 1: NETWORKING CONCEPTS NETWORKING BASICS: At its most elementary level, a computer network consists of two computers connected to each other by a cable that allows them to share data. All computer networking, no matter how sophisticated stems from that simple system. While the idea of connecting two computers by a cable may not seem extraordinary, inretrospect it has proven to be a major achievement in communications. Computer networking arose as an answer to the need to share data in a timely fashion. Personal computers are powerful tools that can process and manipulate large amounts of data quickly, but they do not allow users to share that data efficiently. Before networks, users needed either to print out documents or copy document files to a disk for others to edit or use them. If others made changes tothe document, there was no easy way to merge the changes. This was, and still is, known as working in a stand-alone environment. TYPES OF NETWORKS: Computer networks can be categorized in the following types. LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN): A local area network (LAN) supplies networking capability to a group of computers in close proximity to each other such as in an office building, a school, or a home. A LAN is useful for sharing resources like files, printers, games or other applications. A LAN in turn often connects to other LANs, and to the Internet . The most common type of local area network is an Ethernet LAN. The smallest home LAN can have exactly two computers; a large LAN can accommodate many thousands of computers. Many LANs are divided into logical groups called subnets. METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN): MAN stands for metropolitan area network .It is a network of devices within an area of one to ten kilometers or with in a city. It may be a single network such as a cable television network or it may be a means of connecting a number of LANs into a larger network so that resources may be shared LAN to LAN as well as device to device. WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN): A WAN stand for wide area network .It is spread through out the world. A WAN that is wholly owned and used by a single company is often referred to as an enterprise network. It can connect computers and other devices on opposite sides of the world. A WAN is made up of a number of interconnected LANs. Perhaps the ultimate WAN is the Internet. INTRANET: Anintranetis a privatecomputer networkthat usesInternet Protocoltechnologies to securely share any part of an organizations information or operational systems within that organization. The term is used in contrast tointernet, a network between organizations, and instead refers to a network within an organization. Sometimes the term refers only to the organizations internalwebsite, but may be a more extensive part of the organizations information technology infrastructure. It may host multiple private websites and constitute an important component and focal point of internal communication and collaboration. EXTRANET: Anextranetis a private network that usesInternet protocols,networkconnectivity. An extranet can be viewed as part of a companysintranetthat is extended to users outside the company, usually via theInternet. It has also been described as a state of mind in which the Internet is perceived as a way to do business with a selected set of other companies (business-to-business, B2B), in isolation from all other Internet users. In contrast,business-to-consumer(B2C) models involve known servers of one or more companies, communicating with previously unknown consumer users. INTERNETWORK: An Internetwork is a collection of two or more LANs connected by WANs. Internworks are referred to interchangeably as data networks or simply networks. The most popular internetwork is the Internet which is open to public. COMPONENTS OF NETWORK: A data communication system has two main components:- HARDWARE COMPONENTS: Devices and media are the physical elements or hardware of the network Hradware is often the visible components of the network platform such as a laptop, a PC or swtich etc used to connect the devices. Ocassionally some components might not be so visible. DEVICES: Devices of the network can be of two types that are the end devices and the intermediary devices, we explain both the types:- END USER DEVICES: An end use device refers to a piece of equipment that is either the ousce or the destination of a message on a network. Network users usaully only see or touch an end device, which is most often a computer. Another can generic term for an end device that sends or receives messages is a host. E.g host and end devices are Printers, Computers, Scanners, Webcams etc. INTERMEDIARY DEVICES: Intermediary devices connect the indivisual hosts to the network or can connect multiple networks to form an internetwork. Intermediary devices are not all the same. Some work inside the LAN to perfom switching functions and others help route messages between networks. Example of intermediary devices are Switches, Hubs and Routers etc. NETWORK MEDIA: Communication across a network is carried on a medium. The medium provides the channel over which the message travels from source to destination. The three main types of media in use in a network are: COPPER: A twisted pair cable usually used as a medium inside a LAN environment. FIBEROPTICS: Made up of glass or plastic fibers in a vinyl coating usually used for long runs in a LAN and as a trunk. WIRELESS: It connects local users through air using electromagnetic waves. SOFTWARE COMPONENTS: Software components can be divided in to two parts, services and processes. SERVICES: A network service provide information in responce to a request. Services include many of the common netowrk applications people use every day, like e-mail hosting services and web hosting services. For an instance we can take example of YAHOO enterprise, they provide mail services as well as web services, there are a number of companies offering these kind of services. PROCESSES: Processes provide the funtionality that directs and moves the messages through the network. Processes are less obvious to us ut are critical to the opeation of networks. For example viewing a webpage invokes one network process, clicking on a hyperlink causes a web browser to communicate with a web server, in the same way many network processes can take place at the same time. NETWORK TOPOLOGIES: Topology of a network is the geometrical representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices to one another. PHYSICAL TOPOLOGIES: There are four basic physical topologies possible mesh, star, bus, and ring. MESH TOPOLOGY: In a mesh topology every device has a dedicated point to point connection to every other device .A fully connected mesh network therefore has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices . STAR TOPOLOGY: In star topology each device has a dedicated point to point connection only to a central controller usually called a hub . The devices are not directly connected to each other .Unlike a mesh topology ,a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices the controller acts as an exchange : if one device wants to send data to another it sends the data to the controller which then relays the data to the other connected device. BUS TOPOLOGY: A bus topology on the other hand is multi point one long cable acts as a back bone to link all the devices in a network nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps a drop line is a connection running between the devices and the main cable a tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. RING TOPOLOGY: In a ring topology each device has a dedicated point to point connection only with the two devices on either side of it . A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device to device until it reaches to its destination protocols. LOGICAL TOPOLOGIES: The Logical topology defines how the systems communicate across the physical topologies. There are two main types of logical topologies: SHARED MEDIA TOPOLOGY: In a shared media topology, all the systems have the ability to access the physical layout whenever they need it. The main advantage in a shared media topology is that the systems have unrestricted access to the physical media. Of course, the main disadvantage to this topology is collisions. If two systems send information out on the wire at the same time, the packets collide and kill both packets. Ethernet is an example of a shared media topology. TOKEN BASED TOPOLOGY: The token-based topology works by using a token to provide access to the physical media. In a token-based network, there is a token that travels around the network. When a system needs to send out packets, it grabs the token off of the wire, attaches it to the packets that are sent, and sends it back out on the wire. As the token travels around the network, each system examines the token. When the packets arrive at the destination systems, those systems copy the information off of the wire and the token continues its journey until it gets back to the sender. When the sender receives the token back, it pulls the token off of the wire and sends out a new empty token to be used by the next machine. PROTOCOLS: In information technology, a protocol (from the Greek protocollon, which was a leaf of paper glued to a manuscript volume, describing its contents) is the special set of rules that end points in a telecommunication connection use when they communicate. Protocols exist at several levels in a telecommunication connection. For example, there are protocols for the data interchange at the hardware device level and protocols for data interchange at the application program level. In the standard model known as Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), there are one or more protocols at each layer in the telecommunication exchange that both ends of the exchange must recognize and observe. Protocols are often described in an industry or international standard. NETWORK PROTOCOLS: For devices to communicate over the network, they must follow different protocols that perform the many tasks to be completed. The protocols define the following: The format of the message The way intermediary dvices share information about the path to the destination The method to handle update messages between intermediary devices The process to initiate and terminate communications between hosts INTERACTION OF PROTOCOLS: Interaction between protocols can be clearly understood by a simple example, the way that a web server and a web client interacts. HTTP defines the formatting and content of the requests and responses exchanged between the client and server. Both the client and server implements HTTP as part of the application. The HTTP protocol relies on other protocols to govern how the message are transported between the client and server. TCP is the transport protocol that divides the HTTP messages in to smaller pieces to be sent to the destination client, it is also responsible for controlling the size and rate at which messages are exchanged between the client and the server. Another protocol called IP is responsible for taking the formatted segments from TCP, encapsulating them into packets, assigning the appropriate addresses and selecting the best path to the destination host. TECHNOLOGY INDEPENDENT PROTOCOLS: Protocols that guide the network data are not dependent on any specific technology to carry out the task. Protocols describe what must be done to communicate, not how the task is to be completed.This is the reason that enables different kind of devices such as telephones and computers to use the same network infrasturcture to communicate. PROTOCOLS AND REFRENCE MODELS: Networking professionals use two networking models to comminicate within the industry, they are protocol models and reference models. Both were created in the 1970s. A protocol model is a model that closely matches the structure of a particular protocol suite. The hierarhical set of related protocols in a suite typically represents all the functionality required to interface the human network with the data network. The TCP/IP model is a protocol model because it describes the functions that occur at each layer of protocols with in the protocol suite. A refrence model provides a common referecen for maintaining the consistency within alkl types ofn etwork protocols and services. The primary function of a refercen model is to aid in clearer understanding of the functions and process involved. The OPEN SYSTEMS INERCONNECTION (OSI) the most well known reference model. OSI MODEL: In 1978, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) released a set of specifications that described network architecture for connecting dissimilar devices. The original document applied to systems that were open to each other because they could all use the same protocols and standards to exchange information. APPLICATION LAYER: The topmost layer of the OSI reference model, is the application layer. This layer relates to the services that directly support user applications, such as software for file transfers, database access, and e-mail. In other words, it serves as a window through which application processes can access network services. A message to be sent across the network enters the OSI reference model at this point and exits the OSI reference models application layer on the receiving computer. PRESENTATION LAYER: The presentation layer, defines the format used to exchange data among networked computers. Think of it as the networks translator. When computers from dissimilar systems need to communicate, a certain amount of translation and byte reordering must be done. Within the sending computer, the presentation layer translates data from the format sent down from the application layer into a commonly recognized, intermediary format. At the receiving computer, this layer translates the intermediary format into a format that can be useful to that computers application layer. The presentation layer is responsible for converting protocols, translating the data, encrypting the data, changing or converting the character set, and expanding graphics commands. The presentation layer also manages data compression to reduce the number of bits that need to be transmitted. SESSION LAYER: The session layer, allows two applications on different computers to open, use, and close a connection called a session. (A session is a highly structured dialog between two workstations.) The session layer is responsible for managing this dialog. It performs name-recognition and other functions, such as security, that are needed to allow two applications to communicate over the network. TRANSPORT LAYER: The transport layer, provides an additional connection level beneath the session layer. The transport layer ensures that packets are delivered error free, in sequence, and without losses or duplications. At the sending computer, this layer repackages messages, dividing long messages into several packets and collecting small packets together in one package. This process ensures that packets are transmitted efficiently over the network. At the receiving computer, the transport layer opens the packets, reassembles the original messages, and, typically, sends an acknowledgment that the message was received. If a duplicate packet arrives, this layer will recognize the duplicate and discard it. NETWORK LAYER: The network layer, is responsible for addressing messages and translating logical addresses and names into physical addresses. This layer also determines the route from the source to the destination computer. It determines which path the data should take based on network conditions, priority of service, and other factors. It also manages traffic problems on the network, such as switching and routing of packets and controlling the congestion of data. DATA LINK LAYER: The data-link layer, sends data frames from the network layer to the physical layer. It controls the electrical impulses that enter and leave the network cable. On the receiving end, the data-link layer packages raw bits from the physical layer into data frames. The electrical representation of the data is known to this layer only. PHYSICAL LAYER: The bottom layer of the OSI reference model, is the physical layer. This layer transmits the unstructured, raw bit stream over a physical medium (such as the network cable). The physical layer is totally hardware-oriented and deals with all aspects of establishing and maintaining a physical link between communicating computers. The physical layer also carries the signals that transmit data generated by each of the higher layers. TCP/IP MODEL: The TCP/IP protocol does not exactly match the OSI reference model. Instead of seven layers, it uses only four. Commonly referred to as the Internet Protocol Suite, TCP/IP is broken into the following four layers: NETWORK ACCESS: Network access layer communicates directly with the network. It provides the interface between the network architecture (such as token ring, Ethernet) and the Internet layer. INTERNET: The Internet layer, corresponding to the network layer of the OSI reference model, uses several protocols for routing and delivering packets. Router are protocol dependent, they function at this layer of the model and are used to forward packets from one network or segment to another. Several protocols work within the Internet layer. TRANSPORT: The transport layer, corresponding to the transport layer of the OSI reference model, is responsible for establishing and maintaining end-to-end communication between two hosts. The transport layer provides acknowledgment of receipt, flow control, and sequencing of packets. It also handles retransmissions of packets. The transport layer can use either TCP or User Datagram Protocol (UDP) protocols depending on the requirements of the transmission. APPLICATION: Corresponding to the session, presentation, and application layers of the OSI reference model, the application layer connects applications to the network. It contains all the higher-level protocols. COMPARISON BETWEEN OSI MODEL AND TCP/IP MODEL: The OSI and TCP/IP reference models have much in common. Both are based on the concept of a stack of independent protocols. Also, the functionality of the layers is roughly similar. For example, in both models the layers up through and including the transport layer are there to provide an end-to-end, network-independent transport service to processes wishing to communicate. These layers form the transport provider. Again in both models, the layers above transport are application-oriented users of the transport service. The differece between OSI and TCP/IP model is that the Application layer of TCP/IP model operates at the upper three layers of OSI model, they are application layer, presentation layer and session layer, also the Network layer of TCP/IP model works at the lower two layers of OSI model that are, data link layer and physical layer. TCP/IP PROTOCOL The TCP/IP suite of protocols is the set of protocols used to communicate across the internet. It is also widely used on many organizational networks due to its flexibility and wide array of functionality provided. Microsoft who had originally developed their own set of protocols now is more widely using TCP/IP, at first for transport and now to support other services. SOME IMPORTANT TCP/IP PROTOCOLS: INTERNET PROTOCOLv4 (IP): Internet Protocol (IP) is a packet-switched protocol that performs addressing and route selection. As a packet is transmitted, this protocol appends a header to the packet so that it can be routed through the network using dynamic routing tables. IP is a connectionless protocol and sends packets without expecting the receiving host to acknowledge receipt. In addition, IP is responsible for packet assembly and disassembly as required by the physical and data-link layers of the OSI reference model. Each IP packet is made up of a source and a destination address, protocol identifier, checksum (a calculated value), and a TTL (which stands for time to live). The TTL tells each router on the network between the source and the destination how long the packet has to remain on the network. It works like a countdown counter or clock. As the packet passes through the router, the router deducts the larger of one unit (one second) or the time that the packet was queued for delivery. For example, if a packet has a TTL of 128, it can stay on the network for 128 seconds or 128 hops (each stop, or router, along the way), or any combination of the two. The purpose of the TTL is to prevent lost or damaged data packets (such as missing e-mail messages) from endlessly wandering the network. When the TTL counts down to zero, the packet is eliminated from the network. IPV4 HEADER: The key fields of the ipv4 are as follows:- SOURCE ADDRESS: Senders ip address DESTINATION ADDRESS : Receivers ip address TIME TO LIVE (TTL): Numeber of hops a packet must traverse before getting discarded. TYPE OF SERVICE (TOS): It is for a sending host to specify a preference for how the datagram would be handled as it makes its way through an internet. PROTOCOL: This field defines the protocol used in the data portion of the IP datagram. FLAG AND FRAGMENT: A three-bit field follows and is used to control or identify fragments VERSION: Protocol version. INTERNET HEADER LENGTH: The second field (4 bits) is the Internet Header Length (IHL) telling the number of 32-bitwordsin the header. PACKET LENGTH: This 16-bit field defines the entire datagram size, including header and data, in bytes. ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL (ARP): Before an IP packet can be forwarded to another host, the hardware address of the receiving machine must be known. The ARP determines hardware addresses (MAC addresses) that correspond to an IP address. If ARP does not contain the address in its own cache, it broadcasts a request for the address. All hosts on the network process the request and, if they contain a map to that address, pass the address back to the requestor. The packet is then sent on its way, and the new information address is stored in the routers cache. HEADER: Some important fields of ARPs header are as follows:- HARDWARE TYPE: This field specifies the Link Layer protocol type PROTOCOL TYPE: This field specifies the upper layer protocol for which the ARP request is intended HARDWARE LENGTH: Length of a hardware address PROTOCOL LENGTH: Length (in octets) of alogical addressof the specified protocol OPERATION: Specifies the operation that the sender is performing SENDER HARDWARE ADDRESS: Hardware (MAC) address of the sender. SENDER PROTOCOL ADDRESS: Upper layer protocol address of the sender. TARGET PROTOCOL ADDRESS: Hardware address of the intended receiver. TARGET HARDWARE ADDRESS: Upper layer protocol address of the intended receiver. TRANSMISSION CONTROL (TCP): The TCP is responsible for the reliable transmission of data from one node to another. It is a connection-based protocol and establishes a connection (also known as a session, virtual circuit, or link), between two machines before any data is transferred. To establish a reliable connection, TCP uses what is known as a three-way handshake. This establishes the port number and beginning sequence numbers from both sides of the transmission. HEADER: Following are some important fields of TCP header: SOURCE PORT: Identifies the sending port. DESTINATION PORT: Identifies the receiving port. SEQUENCE NUMBER: This is the initial sequence number. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT NUMBER: A 32 bit acknowledgement number. DATA OFFSET: Specifies the size of the TCP header in 32-bit words. USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP): A connectionless protocol, the UDP, is responsible for end-to-end transmission of data. Unlike TCP, however, UDP does not establish a connection. It attempts to send the data and to verify that the destination host actually receives the data. UDP is best used to send small amounts of data for which guaranteed delivery is not required. While UDP uses ports, they are different from TCP ports; therefore, they can use the same numbers without interference. HEADER: Some key headers of UDP are as follows: SOURCE PORT: This field identifies the sending port. DESITNATION PORT: This field indentifies the receiving port LENGTH: A 16-bit field that specifies the length in bytes of the entire datagram CHECKSUM: The 16-bitchecksumfield is used for error-checking of the headeranddata. NETWORK ADDRESSING: There are millions of computers in use on the web and billions of messages traversing networks at any given time, so prper addresing is essential to make sure that the sent messages arrives intact at the proper destination. Addressing of data happens in three different layers of the OSI model. The PDU at each layer adds address information for use by the peer layer at the destination. CHAPTER 2: ROUTING Fundamentals ROUTING: Routing is the process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including the telephone network, electronic data networks such as the Internet, and transportation networks. Our main concern will be routing in packet switched networks. In packet switching networks, routing directs packet forwarding, the transit of logically addressed packets from their source toward their ultimate destination through intermediate nodes; typically hardware devices called routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General-purpose computers with multiple network cards can also forward packets and perform routing, though they are not specialized hardware and may suffer from limited performance. The routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held in the routers memory, is very important for efficient routing. Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time, but multipath routing techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths. TYPES OF ROUTING: STATIC ROUTING: Static routing is manually adding routes to the routing table, routes through a data network are described by fixed paths (statically). These routes are usually entered into the router by the system administrator. An entire network can be configured using static routes, but this type of configuration is not fault tolerant. When there is a change in the network or a failure occurs between two statically defined nodes, traffic will not be rerouted. This means that anything that wishes to take an affected path will either have to wait for the failure to be repaired or the static route to be updated by the administrator before restarting its journey. Most requests will time out (ultimately failing) before these repairs can be made. There are, however, times when static routes make sense and can even improve the performance of a network. Some of these include stub networks and default routes. DYNAMIC ROUTING: Dynamic routing performs the same function as static routing except it is more robust. Static routing allows routing tables in specific routers to be set up in a static manner so network routes for packets are set. If a router on the route goes down the destination may become unreachable. Dynamic routing allows routing tables in routers to change as the possible routes change. Dynamic routing uses routing protocols for routing information automatically over the internertwork. STATIC VS DYNAMIC ROUTING: Before going further we need to examine the difference between static and dynamic routing. ROUTING PROTOCOLS: Before going in to the details of dynamic routing we must understand what are routing protocols. Routing protocols implement algorithms that tell routers the best paths through internetworks. Routing protocols provide the layer 3 network state update. In short, routing protocols route datagrams through a network. Routing is a layer 3 function, thus, routing and routed protocols are network-layer entities. Routing tables on the layer 3 router are populated by information from routing protocols. A routed protocol will enter an interface on a router, be placed in a memory buffer, then it will be forwarded out to an interface based on information in the routing table TYPES OF DYNAMIC ROUTING PROTOCOLS: Dynamic routing protocols can be divided in to the following broad catagories. CLASSFUL AND CLASSLESS ROUTING PROTOCOLS: CLASSFUL ROUTING PROTOCOLS: Classful routing protocols do not send subnet mask information in routing updates. This was at the time when network address were allocated on the basis of classes i.e A, B or C. These routing prtocols did not include subnet mask in routing update because the the network mask was determined by first octet of the network address. Classfull routing protocols can still be used in todays networks but they cannot be used in all situations because they do not include the subnet mask. Classfull routing protocols cannot be used where the network is subnetted using more then one subnet mask, in other words we can say that classfull routing protocols do not support variable-lenght subnet mask (VLSM). In the following figure the classfull version of the network support similar subnet masks i.e all /24. CLASSLESS ROUTING PROTOCOLS:

The Da Vinci Code Chapter 87-92

CHAPTER 87 The fireplace in Chateau Villette's drawing room was cold, but Collet paced before it nonetheless as he read the faxes from Interpol. Not at all what he expected. Andre Vernet, according to official records, was a model citizen. No police record – not even a parking ticket. Educated at prep school and the Sorbonne, he had a cum laude degree in international finance. Interpol said Vernet's name appeared in the newspapers from time to time, but always in a positive light. Apparently the man had helped design the security parameters that kept the Depository Bank of Zurich a leader in the ultramodern world of electronic security. Vernet's credit card records showed a penchant for art books, expensive wine, and classical CD's – mostly Brahms – which he apparently enjoyed on an exceptionally high-end stereo system he had purchased several years ago. Zero, Collet sighed. The only red flag tonight from Interpol had been a set of fingerprints that apparently belonged to Teabing's servant. The chief PTS examiner was reading the report in a comfortable chair across the room. Collet looked over. â€Å"Anything?† The examiner shrugged. â€Å"Prints belong to Remy Legaludec. Wanted for petty crime. Nothing serious. Looks like he got kicked out of university for rewiring phone jacks to get free service†¦ later did some petty theft. Breaking and entering. Skipped out on a hospital bill once for an emergency tracheotomy.† He glanced up, chuckling. â€Å"Peanut allergy.† Collet nodded, recalling a police investigation into a restaurant that had failed to notate on its menu that the chili recipe contained peanut oil. An unsuspecting patron had died of anaphylactic shock at the table after a single bite. â€Å"Legaludec is probably a live-in here to avoid getting picked up.† The examiner looked amused. â€Å"His lucky night.† Collet sighed. â€Å"All right, you better forward this info to Captain Fache.† The examiner headed off just as another PTS agent burst into the living room. â€Å"Lieutenant! We found something in the barn.† From the anxious look on the agent's face, Collet could only guess. â€Å"A body.† â€Å"No, sir. Something more†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He hesitated. â€Å"Unexpected.† Rubbing his eyes, Collet followed the agent out to the barn. As they entered the musty, cavernous space, the agent motioned toward the center of the room, where a wooden ladder now ascended high into the rafters, propped against the ledge of a hayloft suspended high above them. â€Å"That ladder wasn't there earlier,† Collet said.† No, sir. I set that up. We were dusting for prints near the Rolls when I saw the ladder lying on the floor. I wouldn't have given it a second thought except the rungs were worn and muddy. This ladder gets regular use. The height of the hayloft matched the ladder, so I raised it and climbed up to have a look.† Collet's eyes climbed the ladder's steep incline to the soaring hayloft. Someone goes up thereregularly? From down here, the loft appeared to be a deserted platform, and yet admittedly most of it was invisible from this line of sight. A senior PTS agent appeared at the top of the ladder, looking down. â€Å"You'll definitely want to see this, Lieutenant,† he said, waving Collet up with a latex-gloved hand. Nodding tiredly, Collet walked over to the base of the old ladder and grasped the bottom rungs. The ladder was an antique tapered design and narrowed as Collet ascended. As he neared the top, Collet almost lost his footing on a thin rung. The barn below him spun. Alert now, he moved on, finally reaching the top. The agent above him reached out, offering his wrist. Collet grabbed it and made the awkward transition onto the platform. â€Å"It's over there,† the PTS agent said, pointing deep into the immaculately clean loft. â€Å"Only one set of prints up here. We'll have an ID shortly.† Collet squinted through the dim light toward the far wall. What the hell? Nestled against the far wall sat an elaborate computer workstation – two tower CPUs, a flat-screen video monitor with speakers, an array of hard drives, and a multichannel audio console that appeared to have its own filtered power supply. Why in the world would anyone work all the way up here? Collet moved toward the gear. â€Å"Have you examined the system?† â€Å"It's a listening post.† Collet spun. â€Å"Surveillance?† The agent nodded. â€Å"Very advanced surveillance.† He motioned to a long project table strewn with electronic parts, manuals, tools, wires, soldering irons, and other electronic components. â€Å"Someone clearly knows what he's doing. A lot of this gear is as sophisticated as our own equipment. Miniature microphones, photoelectric recharging cells, high-capacity RAM chips. He's even got some of those new nano drives.† Collet was impressed. â€Å"Here's a complete system,† the agent said, handing Collet an assembly not much larger than a pocket calculator. Dangling off the contraption was a foot-long wire with a stamp-sized piece of wafer-thin foil stuck on the end. â€Å"The base is a high-capacity hard disk audio recording system with rechargeable battery. That strip of foil at the end of the wire is a combination microphone and photoelectric recharging cell.† Collet knew them well. These foil-like, photocell microphones had been an enormous breakthrough a few years back. Now, a hard disk recorder could be affixed behind a lamp, for example, with its foil microphone molded into the contour of the base and dyed to match. As long as the microphone was positioned such that it received a few hours of sunlight per day, the photo cells would keep recharging the system. Bugs like this one could listen indefinitely. â€Å"Reception method?† Collet asked. The agent signaled to an insulated wire that ran out of the back of the computer, up the wall, through a hole in the barn roof. â€Å"Simple radio wave. Small antenna on the roof.† Collet knew these recording systems were generally placed in offices, were voice-activated to save hard disk space, and recorded snippets of conversation during the day, transmitting compressed audio files at night to avoid detection. After transmitting, the hard drive erased itself and prepared to do it all over again the next day. Collet's gaze moved now to a shelf on which were stacked several hundred audio cassettes, all labeled with dates and numbers. Someone has been very busy.He turned back to the agent. â€Å"Doyou have any idea what target is being bugged?† â€Å"Well, Lieutenant,† the agent said, walking to the computer and launching a piece of software. â€Å"It's the strangest thing†¦Ã¢â‚¬  CHAPTER 88 Langdon felt utterly spent as he and Sophie hurdled a turnstile at the Temple tube station and dashed deep into the grimy labyrinth of tunnels and platforms. The guilt ripped through him. I involved Leigh, and now he's in enormous danger. Remy's involvement had been a shock, and yet it made sense. Whoever was pursuing the Grail had recruited someone on the inside. They went to Teabing's for the same reason I did.Throughout history, those who held knowledge of the Grail had always been magnets for thieves and scholars alike. The fact that Teabing had been a target all along should have made Langdon feel less guilty about involving him. It did not. We need to find Leigh and help him.Immediately. Langdon followed Sophie to the westbound District and Circle Line platform, where she hurried to a pay phone to call the police, despite Remy's warning to the contrary. Langdon sat on a grungy bench nearby, feeling remorseful. â€Å"The best way to help Leigh,† Sophie reiterated as she dialed,† is to involve the London authorities immediately. Trust me.† Langdon had not initially agreed with this idea, but as they had hatched their plan, Sophie's logic began to make sense. Teabing was safe at the moment. Even if Remy and the others knew where the knight's tomb was located, they still might need Teabing's help deciphering the orb reference. What worried Langdon was what would happen after the Grail map had been found. Leigh willbecome a huge liability. If Langdon were to have any chance of helping Leigh, or of ever seeing the keystone again, it was essential that he find the tomb first. Unfortunately, Remy has a big head start. Slowing Remy down had become Sophie's task. Finding the right tomb had become Langdon's. Sophie would make Remy and Silas fugitives of the London police, forcing them into hiding or, better yet, catching them. Langdon's plan was less certain – to take the tube to nearby King's College, which was renowned for its electronic theological database. The ultimate research tool, Langdon had heard. Instant answers to any religious historical question.He wondered what the database would have to say about† a knight a Pope interred.† He stood up and paced, wishing the train would hurry. At the pay phone, Sophie's call finally connected to the London police. â€Å"Snow Hill Division,† the dispatcher said. â€Å"How may I direct your call?† â€Å"I'm reporting a kidnapping.† Sophie knew to be concise.† Name please?† Sophie paused. â€Å"Agent Sophie Neveu with the French Judicial Police.† The title had the desired effect. â€Å"Right away, ma'am. Let me get a detective on the line for you.† As the call went through, Sophie began wondering if the police would even believe her description of Teabing's captors. A man in a tuxedo.How much easier to identify could a suspect be? Even if Remy changed clothes, he was partnered with an albino monk. Impossible to miss.Moreover, they had a hostage and could not take public transportation. She wondered how many Jaguar stretch limos there could be in London. Sophie's connection to the detective seemed to be taking forever. Come on! She could hear the line clicking and buzzing, as if she was being transferred. Fifteen seconds passed. Finally a man came on the line. â€Å"Agent Neveu?† Stunned, Sophie registered the gruff tone immediately. â€Å"Agent Neveu,† Bezu Fache demanded. â€Å"Where the hell are you?† Sophie was speechless. Captain Fache had apparently requested the London police dispatcher alert him if Sophie called in. â€Å"Listen,† Fache said, speaking to her in terse French. â€Å"I made a terrible mistake tonight. Robert Langdon is innocent. All charges against him have been dropped. Even so, both of you are in danger. You need to come in.† Sophie's jaw fell slack. She had no idea how to respond. Fache was not a man who apologized for anything. â€Å"You did not tell me,† Fache continued,† that Jacques Sauniere was your grandfather. I fully intend to overlook your insubordination last night on account of the emotional stress you must be under. At the moment, however, you and Langdon need to go to the nearest London police headquarters for refuge.† He knows I'm in London? What else does Fache know? Sophie heard what sounded like drilling or machinery in the background. She also heard an odd clicking on the line. â€Å"Are you tracing this call, Captain?† Fache's voice was firm now. â€Å"You and I need to cooperate, Agent Neveu. We both have a lot to lose here. This is damage control. I made errors in judgment last night, and if those errors result in the deaths of an American professor and a DCPJ cryptologist, my career will be over. I've been trying to pull you back into safety for the last several hours.† A warm wind was now pushing through the station as a train approached with a low rumble. Sophie had every intention of being on it. Langdon apparently had the same idea; he was gathering himself together and moving toward her now. â€Å"The man you want is Remy Legaludec,† Sophie said. â€Å"He is Teabing's servant. He just kidnapped Teabing inside the Temple Church and – â€Å" â€Å"Agent Neveu!† Fache bellowed as the train thundered into the station. â€Å"This is not something to discuss on an open line. You and Langdon will come in now. For your own well-being! That is a direct order!† Sophie hung up and dashed with Langdon onto the train. CHAPTER 89 The immaculate cabin of Teabing's Hawker was now covered with steel shavings and smelled of compressed air and propane. Bezu Fache had sent everyone away and sat alone with his drink and the heavy wooden box found in Teabing's safe. Running his finger across the inlaid Rose, he lifted the ornate lid. Inside he found a stone cylinder with lettered dials. The five dials were arranged to spell SOFIA. Fache stared at the word a long moment and then lifted the cylinder from its padded resting place and examined every inch. Then, pulling slowly on the ends, Fache slid off one of the end caps. The cylinder was empty. Fache set it back in the box and gazed absently out the jet's window at the hangar, pondering his brief conversation with Sophie, as well as the information he'd received from PTS in Chateau Villette. The sound of his phone shook him from his daydream. It was the DCPJ switchboard. The dispatcher was apologetic. The president of the Depository Bank of Zurich had been calling repeatedly, and although he had been told several times that the captain was in London on business, he just kept calling. Begrudgingly Fache told the operator to forward the call. â€Å"Monsieur Vernet,† Fache said, before the man could even speak,† I am sorry I did not call you earlier. I have been busy. As promised, the name of your bank has not appeared in the media. So what precisely is your concern?† Vernet's voice was anxious as he told Fache how Langdon and Sophie had extracted a small wooden box from the bank and then persuaded Vernet to help them escape. â€Å"Then when I heard on the radio that they were criminals,† Vernet said, â€Å"I pulled over and demanded the box back, but they attacked me and stole the truck.† â€Å"You are concerned for a wooden box,† Fache said, eyeing the Rose inlay on the cover and again gently opening the lid to reveal the white cylinder. â€Å"Can you tell me what was in the box?† â€Å"The contents are immaterial,† Vernet fired back. â€Å"I am concerned with the reputation of my bank. We have never had a robbery. Ever.It will ruin us if I cannot recover this property on behalf of my client.† â€Å"You said Agent Neveu and Robert Langdon had a password and a key. What makes you say they stole the box?† â€Å"They murdered people tonight. Including Sophie Neveu's grandfather. The key and password were obviously ill-gotten.† â€Å"Mr. Vernet, my men have done some checking into your background and your interests. You are obviously a man of great culture and refinement. I would imagine you are a man of honor, as well. As am I. That said, I give you my word as commanding officer of the Police Judiciaire that your box, along with your bank's reputation, are in the safest of hands.† CHAPTER 90 High in the hayloft at Chateau Villette, Collet stared at the computer monitor in amazement. â€Å"This system is eavesdropping on all these locations?† â€Å"Yes,† the agent said. â€Å"It looks like data has been collected for over a year now.† Collet read the list again, speechless. COLBERT SOSTAQUE – Chairman of the Conseil Constitutionnel JEAN CHAFFeE – Curator, Musee du Jeu de Paume EDOUARD DESROCHERS – Senior Archivist, Mitterrand Library JACQUES SAUNIeRE – Curator, Musee du Louvre MICHEL BRETON – Head of DAS (French Intelligence) The agent pointed to the screen. â€Å"Number four is of obvious concern.† Collet nodded blankly. He had noticed it immediately. Jacques Sauniere was being bugged.He looked at the rest of the list again. How could anyone possibly manage to bug these prominent people?† Have you heard any of the audio files?† â€Å"A few. Here's one of the most recent.† The agent clicked a few computer keys. The speakers crackled to life. â€Å"Capitaine, un agent du Departement de Cryptographie est arrive.† Collet could not believe his ears. â€Å"That's me! That's my voice!† He recalled sitting at Sauniere's desk and radioing Fache in the Grand Gallery to alert him of Sophie Neveu's arrival. The agent nodded. â€Å"A lot of our Louvre investigation tonight would have been audible if someone had been interested.† â€Å"Have you sent anyone in to sweep for the bug?† â€Å"No need. I know exactly where it is.† The agent went to a pile of old notes and blueprints on the worktable. He selected a page and handed it to Collet. â€Å"Look familiar?† Collet was amazed. He was holding a photocopy of an ancient schematic diagram, which depicted a rudimentary machine. He was unable to read the handwritten Italian labels, and yet he knew what he was looking at. A model for a fully articulated medieval French knight. The knight sitting on Sauniere's desk! Collet's eyes moved to the margins, where someone had scribbled notes on the photocopy in red felt-tipped marker. The notes were in French and appeared to be ideas outlining how best to insert a listening device into the knight. CHAPTER 91 Silas sat in the passenger seat of the parked Jaguar limousine near the Temple Church. His hands felt damp on the keystone as he waited for Remy to finish tying and gagging Teabing in back with the rope they had found in the trunk. Finally, Remy climbed out of the rear of the limo, walked around, and slid into the driver's seat beside Silas. â€Å"Secure?† Silas asked. Remy chuckled, shaking off the rain and glancing over his shoulder through the open partition at the crumpled form of Leigh Teabing, who was barely visible in the shadows in the rear. â€Å"He's not going anywhere.† Silas could hear Teabing's muffled cries and realized Remy had used some of the old duct tape to gag him. â€Å"Ferme ta gueule!† Remy shouted over his shoulder at Teabing. Reaching to a control panel on the elaborate dash, Remy pressed a button. An opaque partition raised behind them, sealing off the back. Teabing disappeared, and his voice was silenced. Remy glanced at Silas. â€Å"I've been listening to his miserable whimpering long enough.† Minutes later, as the Jaguar stretch limo powered through the streets, Silas's cell phone rang. TheTeacher.He answered excitedly. â€Å"Hello?† â€Å"Silas,† the Teacher's familiar French accent said, â€Å"I am relieved to hear your voice. This means you are safe.† Silas was equally comforted to hear the Teacher. It had been hours, and the operation had veered wildly off course. Now, at last, it seemed to be back on track. â€Å"I have the keystone.† â€Å"This is superb news,† the Teacher told him. â€Å"Is Remy with you?† Silas was surprised to hear the Teacher use Remy's name. â€Å"Yes. Remy freed me.† â€Å"As I ordered him to do. I am only sorry you had to endure captivity for so long.† â€Å"Physical discomfort has no meaning. The important thing is that the keystone is ours.† â€Å"Yes. I need it delivered to me at once. Time is of the essence.† Silas was eager to meet the Teacher face-to-face at last. â€Å"Yes, sir, I would be honored.† â€Å"Silas, I would like Remy to bring it to me.† Remy? Silas was crestfallen. After everything Silas had done for the Teacher, he had believed hewould be the one to hand over the prize. The Teacher favors Remy? â€Å"I sense your disappointment,† the Teacher said,† which tells me you do not understand my meaning.† He lowered his voice to a whisper. â€Å"You must believe that I would much prefer to receive the keystone from you – a man of God rather than a criminal – but Remy must be dealt with. He disobeyed my orders and made a grave mistake that has put our entire mission at risk.† Silas felt a chill and glanced over at Remy. Kidnapping Teabing had not been part of the plan, and deciding what to do with him posed a new problem. â€Å"You and I are men of God,† the Teacher whispered. â€Å"We cannot be deterred from our goal.† There was an ominous pause on the line. â€Å"For this reason alone, I will ask Remy to bring me the keystone. Do you understand?† Silas sensed anger in the Teacher's voice and was surprised the man was not more understanding. Showing his face could not be avoided, Silas thought. Remy did what he had to do.He saved the keystone. â€Å"I understand,† Silas managed. â€Å"Good. For your own safety, you need to get off the street immediately. The police will be looking for the limousine soon, and I do not want you caught. Opus Dei has a residence in London, no?† â€Å"Of course.† â€Å"And you are welcome there?† â€Å"As a brother.† â€Å"Then go there and stay out of sight. I will call you the moment I am in possession of the keystone and have attended to my current problem.† â€Å"You are in London?† â€Å"Do as I say, and everything will be fine.† â€Å"Yes, sir.† The Teacher heaved a sigh, as if what he now had to do was profoundly regrettable. â€Å"It's time I speak to Remy.† Silas handed Remy the phone, sensing it might be the last call Remy Legaludec ever took. As Remy took the phone, he knew this poor, twisted monk had no idea what fate awaited him now that he had served his purpose. The Teacher used you, Silas.And your bishop is a pawn. Remy still marveled at the Teacher's powers of persuasion. Bishop Aringarosa had trusted everything. He had been blinded by his own desperation. Aringarosa was far too eager to believe. Although Remy did not particularly like the Teacher, he felt pride at having gained the man's trust and helped him so substantially. I have earned my payday. â€Å"Listen carefully,† the Teacher said. â€Å"Take Silas to the Opus Dei residence hall and drop him off a few streets away. Then drive to St. James's Park. It is adjacent to Parliament and Big Ben. You can park the limousine on Horse Guards Parade. We'll talk there.† With that, the connection went dead. CHAPTER 92 King's College, established by King George IV in 1829, houses its Department of Theology and Religious Studies adjacent to Parliament on property granted by the Crown. King's College Religion Department boasts not only 150 years' experience in teaching and research, but the 1982 establishment of the Research Institute in Systematic Theology, which possesses one of the most complete and electronically advanced religious research libraries in the world. Langdon still felt shaky as he and Sophie came in from the rain and entered the library. The primary research room was as Teabing had described it – a dramatic octagonal chamber dominated by an enormous round table around which King Arthur and his knights might have been comfortable were it not for the presence of twelve flat-screen computer workstations. On the far side of the room, a reference librarian was just pouring a pot of tea and settling in for her day of work. â€Å"Lovely morning,† she said in a cheerful British accent, leaving the tea and walking over. â€Å"May I help you?† â€Å"Thank you, yes,† Langdon replied. â€Å"My name is – Robert Langdon.† She gave a pleasant smile. â€Å"I know who you are.† For an instant, he feared Fache had put him on English television as well, but the librarian's smile suggested otherwise. Langdon still had not gotten used to these moments of unexpected celebrity. Then again, if anyone on earth were going to recognize his face, it would be a librarian in a Religious Studies reference facility. â€Å"Pamela Gettum,† the librarian said, offering her hand. She had a genial, erudite face and a pleasingly fluid voice. The horn-rimmed glasses hanging around her neck were thick. â€Å"A pleasure,† Langdon said. â€Å"This is my friend Sophie Neveu.† The two women greeted one another, and Gettum turned immediately back to Langdon. â€Å"I didn't know you were coming.† â€Å"Neither did we. If it's not too much trouble, we could really use your help finding some information.† Gettum shifted, looking uncertain. â€Å"Normally our services are by petition and appointment only, unless of course you're the guest of someone at the college?† Langdon shook his head. â€Å"I'm afraid we've come unannounced. A friend of mine speaks very highly of you. Sir Leigh Teabing?† Langdon felt a pang of gloom as he said the name. â€Å"The British Royal Historian.† Gettum brightened now, laughing. â€Å"Heavens, yes. What a character. Fanatical! Every time he comes in, it's always the same search strings. Grail. Grail. Grail. I swear that man will die before he gives up on that quest.† She winked. â€Å"Time and money afford one such lovely luxuries, wouldn't you say? A regular Don Quixote, that one.† â€Å"Is there any chance you can help us?† Sophie asked. â€Å"It's quite important.† Gettum glanced around the deserted library and then winked at them both. â€Å"Well, I can't very well claim I'm too busy, now can I? As long as you sign in, I can't imagine anyone being too upset. What did you have in mind?† â€Å"We're trying to find a tomb in London.† Gettum looked dubious. â€Å"We've got about twenty thousand of them. Can you be a little more specific?† â€Å"It's the tomb of a knight.We don't have a name.† â€Å"A knight. That tightens the net substantially. Much less common.† â€Å"We don't have much information about the knight we're looking for,† Sophie said,† but this is what we know.† She produced a slip of paper on which she had written only the first two lines of the poem. Hesitant to show the entire poem to an outsider, Langdon and Sophie had decided to share just the first two lines, those that identified the knight. Compartmentalized cryptography, Sophie had called it. When an intelligence agency intercepted a code containing sensitive data, cryptographers each worked on a discrete section of the code. This way, when they broke it, no single cryptographer possessed the entire deciphered message. In this case, the precaution was probably excessive; even if this librarian saw the entire poem, identified the knight's tomb, and knew what orb was missing, the information was useless without the cryptex. Gettum sensed an urgency in the eyes of this famed American scholar, almost as if his finding this tomb quickly were a matter of critical importance. The green-eyed woman accompanying him also seemed anxious. Puzzled, Gettum put on her glasses and examined the paper they had just handed her. In London lies a knight a Pope interred. His labor's fruit a Holy wrath incurred. She glanced at her guests. â€Å"What is this? Some kind of Harvard scavenger hunt?† Langdon's laugh sounded forced. â€Å"Yeah, something like that.† Gettum paused, feeling she was not getting the whole story. Nonetheless, she felt intrigued and found herself pondering the verse carefully. â€Å"According to this rhyme, a knight did something that incurred displeasure with God, and yet a Pope was kind enough to bury him in London.† Langdon nodded. â€Å"Does it ring any bells?† Gettum moved toward one of the workstations. â€Å"Not offhand, but let's see what we can pull up in the database.† Over the past two decades, King's College Research Institute in Systematic Theology had used optical character recognition software in unison with linguistic translation devices to digitize and catalog an enormous collection of texts – encyclopedias of religion, religious biographies, sacred scriptures in dozens of languages, histories, Vatican letters, diaries of clerics, anything at all that qualified as writings on human spirituality. Because the massive collection was now in the form of bits and bytes rather than physical pages, the data was infinitely more accessible. Settling into one of the workstations, Gettum eyed the slip of paper and began typing. â€Å"To begin, we'll run a straight Boolean with a few obvious keywords and see what happens.† â€Å"Thank you.† Gettum typed in a few words: LONDON, KNIGHT, POPE As she clicked the SEARCH button, she could feel the hum of the massive mainframe downstairs scanning data at a rate of 500 MB/sec. â€Å"I'm asking the system to show us any documents whose complete text contains all three of these keywords. We'll get more hits than we want, but it's a good place to start.† The screen was already showing the first of the hits now. Painting the Pope. The Collected Portraits of Sir Joshua Reynolds. London University Press. Gettum shook her head. â€Å"Obviously not what you're looking for.† She scrolled to the next hit. The London Writings of Alexander Pope by G. Wilson Knight. Again she shook her head. As the system churned on, the hits came up more quickly than usual. Dozens of texts appeared, many of them referencing the eighteenth-century British writer Alexander Pope, whose counter religious, mock-epic poetry apparently contained plenty of references to knights and London. Gettum shot a quick glance to the numeric field at the bottom of the screen. This computer, by calculating the current number of hits and multiplying by the percentage of the database left to search, provided a rough guess of how much information would be found. This particular search looked like it was going to return an obscenely large amount of data. Estimated number of total hits: 2, 692 â€Å"We need to refine the parameters further,† Gettum said, stopping the search. â€Å"Is this all the information you have regarding the tomb? There's nothing else to go on?† Langdon glanced at Sophie Neveu, looking uncertain. This is no scavenger hunt, Gettum sensed. She had heard the whisperings of Robert Langdon's experience in Rome last year. This American had been granted access to the most secure library on earth – the Vatican Secret Archives. She wondered what kinds of secrets Langdon might have learned inside and if his current desperate hunt for a mysterious London tomb might relate to information he had gained within the Vatican. Gettum had been a librarian long enough to know the most common reason people came to London to look for knights. The Grail. Gettum smiled and adjusted her glasses. â€Å"You are friends with Leigh Teabing, you are in England, and you are looking for a knight.† She folded her hands. â€Å"I can only assume you are on a Grail quest.† Langdon and Sophie exchanged startled looks. Gettum laughed. â€Å"My friends, this library is a base camp for Grail seekers. Leigh Teabing among them. I wish I had a shilling for every time I'd run searches for the Rose, Mary Magdalene, Sangreal, Merovingian, Priory of Sion, et cetera, et cetera. Everyone loves a conspiracy.† She took off her glasses and eyed them. â€Å"I need more information.† In the silence, Gettum sensed her guests' desire for discretion was quickly being outweighed by their eagerness for a fast result. â€Å"Here,† Sophie Neveu blurted. â€Å"This is everything we know.† Borrowing a pen from Langdon, she wrote two more lines on the slip of paper and handed it to Gettum. You seek the orb that ought be on his tomb. It speaks of Rosy flesh and seeded womb. Gettum gave an inward smile. The Grail indeed, she thought, noting the references to the Rose and her seeded womb. â€Å"I can help you,† she said, looking up from the slip of paper. â€Å"Might I ask where this verse came from? And why you are seeking an orb?† â€Å"You might ask,† Langdon said, with a friendly smile,† but it's a long story and we have very little time.† â€Å"Sounds like a polite way of saying â€Å"mind your own business.†Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"We would be forever in your debt, Pamela,† Langdon said, â€Å"if you could find out who this knight is and where he is buried.† â€Å"Very well,† Gettum said, typing again. â€Å"I'll play along. If this is a Grail-related issue, we should cross-reference against Grail keywords. I'll add a proximity parameter and remove the title weighting. That will limit our hits only to those instances of textual keywords that occur near aGrail-related word.† Search for: KNIGHT, LONDON, POPE, TOMB Within 100 word proximity of: GRAIL, ROSE, SANGREAL, CHALICE â€Å"How long will this take?† Sophie asked. â€Å"A few hundred terabytes with multiple cross-referencing fields?† Gettum's eyes glimmered as she clicked the SEARCH key. â€Å"A mere fifteen minutes.† Langdon and Sophie said nothing, but Gettum sensed this sounded like an eternity to them. â€Å"Tea?† Gettum asked, standing and walking toward the pot she had made earlier. â€Å"Leigh always loves my tea.†

Aetiology Of Rotator Cuff Tear Health And Social Care Essay

Throwing jocks are prone to shoulder hurts as a consequence of the high forces placed on the shoulder during the throwing gesture ( Sepp Braun et Al. 2009 ) . The rotator turnup is made up of four sinews that emerge from the shoulder blade and connect to the caput of the humerus. Their map is to stabilise the shoulder. A rotator turnup tear can happen as a consequence from insistent throwing, emphasizing the rotator turnup sinews and bad technique. The hurt in baseball hurlers constitutes a tear in either sinew ( the subscapularis or the supraspinatus ) which are both impinged during the throwing gesture. In this essay I am traveling to depict two mechanisms, one three manner mechanism and one two manner mechanism of how a rotator turnup tear would come about. A three manner disciplinary hurt mechanism could come about get downing with a baseball participant being psychologically excessively mentally tough. While mental stamina can be a great feature in an jock it can besides be damaging to their wellness during athletics. It is an jock ‘s ability to continue when stressors are moving on their head and organic structure but they need to cognize their ain bounds and when it is appropriate to halt for their ain wellness and safety. In the ESPN the Magazine ( May 16, 2011 ) an article was released look intoing the exposures to injury that some jocks have chosen to confront to accomplish their end. There are many illustrations over the old ages were jocks have chosen to disregard warning marks refering their safeness and in some instances have become awfully injured. Socio-cultural factors express attitudes and features that are frequently observed in jocks that promote mental stamina. For illustration attitudes that digesting hurting shows Fe will and strength and reluctance to seek medical aid from fright of being seen as weak ( Wiese-Bjornstal and Shaffer, 1999 ) . Mental stamina can be instilled in an jock through constructing their assurance utilizing challenges and support. This may be from parents, friends or their manager. Most jocks are rewarded for ‘being tough ‘ which enforces the thought that mental stamina is a valuable property and many jocks live by the well-known stating â€Å" No hurting, no addition † . When an athlete becomes excessively mentally tough they may set themselves in danger of hurt. Baseball hurlers need to develop and play, each throw seting huge force on the rotator turnup musculuss of the shoulder. Mental stamina can do a hurler to transport on throwing even when his rotator turnup musculuss are fatigued. The hurler may non cognize of the dangers that he/she is confronting if their shoulder begins to hurt.— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — â₠¬â€ — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —Rotator turnup cryings in hurlers are the consequence of a chronic tear from insistent throwing gesture which impinges one of both of the 2 of the four sinews ( the subscapularis or the supraspinatus ) . If the musculus becomes fatigued so its strength and the force it can use are weakened. ( Carsten Juel, 2006 ) Fatigue is a multifactorial state of affairs and that the confining factors may change with force strength, exercising continuance and musculus type. Coevals of metabolites in the fibers can step in with the release of ca2+ to excite contraction and inhibit reactions in the fibers. Metabolites such as Hydrogen ions ( H+ ) can do the intracellular fluid ( cytosol ) of the cell to go acidic ; this inhibits enzyme activity for bring forthing energy. H+ ions are used in the Creatine Kinase ( CK ) reaction and will displace this reaction to favor PCr dislocation. They besides inhibit Phosphofructokinase which phosphorylates fructose in glycolysis. H+ ions may besides lend to tire via: supplanting of ca2+ from adhering with troponin C, stimulation of hurting receptors in musculus ( could do negative feedback mechanism ) , decelerating the release of ADP from myosin ATPase. Although recent research has shown that intracellular acidosis may really heighten the ability of the T-tubule system to transport on action potencies during weariness ( Pederson et al, 2004 ) . Pederson et Al, Intracellular acidosis enhances the irritability of working musculus. Science 305:1144-1147, 2004 Other subscribers to increased H+ degrees are a decrease of intracellular [ K+ ] , synthesis of CP, and the buffering of CO2 produced in the chondriosome. Intracellular chloride can roll up and do little stimulations which make the fibers contract ( vellication of the musculus ) ; this has the consequence of cut downing the force of voluntary contractions. Potassium ( K+ ) released from action potencies can suppress the release of ca2+ when it builds up around the musculus fiber and in the T-tubule. The K+ changes the electric gradient around the fiber and causes a lessening in the release of ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic Reticulum into the myoplasm. Ca2+ within the myoplasm binds to troponin C, instigates motion of tropomyosin, and allows the cycling of cross Bridgess, which finally result in force development ( Allen et al, 2008 ) . Therefore amplitude of contractions will be reduced if there is less ca2+ to adhere to troponin C. If there is less ca2+ this besides allows for more H+ ions to adhere to troponin C, doing weariness. There are besides effects to muscle weariness concerned with the balance between K+ and Na ( Na+ ) but these take topographic point outside of the musculus fibers in the nervousnesss that innervate the fibers. Substrates within musculus cells normally serve as an energy supply for the cell. Substrates such as ATP, animal starch and creatine phosphate are depleted during exercising. When animal starch is used to bring forth energy lactate and H+ ions are produced as a byproduct. These H+ ions create an acidic environment in the cell that non merely inhibits the action of enzymes but besides block nervus signals from the encephalon. If there is non a sufficient O supply to take the H+ ions so fatigue will put in and the musculus will hold to decelerate down to let oxygenated blood to take the them. If there is non sufficient O so pyruvic acid ( besides a byproduct of glycolysis ) will accept H+ to organize lactic acid which is a well-known term used my jocks and managers. All of these factors I have merely talked about can do weariness. If the musculus begins to go fatigued the cross-bridge rhythm will non be working to its full consequence. This means when the rotator turnup musculuss are used to decelerate the arm down in the slowing phase the actin within the musculus fibers will non be able to adhere to the myosin as strongly. This locking mechanism is critical for keeping the musculus and doing certain that it does non stretch past its tensile strength which would do harm to the tissue ( micro cryings ) .— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —During throwing there are strong musculuss on the anterior plane of the shoulder ( pectoralis major, teres major, latissimus dorsi, subscapularis ) executing internal rotary motion of the humerus ( upwards of 7000 grades a 2nd ) ( Dillman et al, 1993 ) . It is estimated that merely half the force generated is produced from the shoulder, the other half is produced by the lower limbs and bole and travels through a kinetic concatenation to the upper limb. There are five stages of throwing which are wind-up, cocking, acceleration, slowing, and follow-through. There are about 200 grades rotary motion in the humerus during throwing ( 90 external and 110 internal ) so this velocity needs to be decelerated in a really short period of clip. ( Sepp Braun et Al. 2009 ) Show that the continuance of the acceleration stage, is merely 0.05 2nd, the greatest angular speeds and the largest alteration in rotary motion occur during this stage. While the concluding two stages, slowing and follow through last for around 0.35 seconds. In concurrence with this statement Kirchhoff and Imhoff 2010, have shown that in the slowing phase the compressive forces created by the rotator turnup is on norm around 1090 N and shear forces are created on the posterior plane of around 400 N. The rotator turnup musculuss do non hold great endurance and are far weaker than the musculuss on the anterior plane of the shoulder, so it is easy to see how cryings could develop. The supraspinatus is normally the musculus that is torn in baseball hurlers. This is because it is non considered an external rotator ; its chief map is to kidnap the arm. Due to its place it takes the initial strain of the stretch with internal rotary motion. It originates on the top of the shoulder blade to its interpolation on the greater tubercle of the humerus so it is easy to see how it is pulled when maximum internal rotary motion is exceeded. The tensile and shear forces placed on the musculus combine to do a tear to get down. Insistent usage of the rotator turnup musculuss to slow the throwing force can do micro cryings in the musculuss. These micro cryings can increase in figure if the rate of tissue dislocation exceeds the rate at which the organic structure can replace the damaged tissue. Reasoning the information I have provided above, it can been learned that the aetiology of rotator turnup cryings can affect a figure of subjects. This is merely one of the many fluctuations of subjects that work together to do the hurt. Mental stamina has caused a hurler to disregard marks of hurt in the shoulder, after uninterrupted throwing the forces moving on the musculuss fatigue the musculuss and do micro cryings which can develop into big painfull tear.— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — –A two manner disciplinary hurt mechanism could come about get down ing with a baseball hurler under psychological emphasis. Stress is a reaction by the organic structure when the individual feels under force per unit area or overwhelmed by something in the environment around them. It is caused by two things, whether the individual thinks the anxiousness is needed in the state of affairs and how their organic structure reacts to certain cognitive and thought procedures. If a baseball hurler is under emphasis this can do tenseness within the shoulder musculuss. Emotional emphasis can be caused by a figure of things such as jobs at work or a feverish agenda. Hans Selye ‘s GAS ( General Adaptation Syndrome ) theory from 1936 suggests that when emphasis is place upon a individual the individual undergoes 3 phases. The phases are alarm reaction, the phase of opposition and the phase of exhaustion. The dismay phase is described as an acute phase were the cardinal nervous system sends out signals to assorted countries of the organic structure to originate the â€Å" battle or flight responses † . The phase of opposition is when the organic structure begins to reconstruct homeostasis back to normal degrees or if the nerve-racking conditions continue the organic structure adapts and remains in a province of rousing. Lastly is the exhaustion phase, this is when the organic structure ‘s ability to defy the stressors has failed because its energy supply has gone. This is frequently referred to as adrenal weariness or overload. Findingss from research lab experiments ( Forsman et al. , 2002 ; Larsson et al. , 1995 ) show that non merely physical demands but besides cognitive factors and mental emphasis may bring on musculus tenseness. Small, low-threshold motor units are recruited at low degrees of contraction, before larger 1s, and are kept activated until complete relaxation of the musculus. If these recruited motor units are non relieved of their tenseness via exercising or massage etc harm to the motor nerve cells can happen ( Sjogaard et al. , 2000 ) . Therefore long permanent psychological emphasis may maintain low-threshold motor units active causing harm. An experiment ( Lundberg, Forsman et al. , 2002 ) utilizing intra-muscular recordings showed that these low threshold motor units can be activated by mental emphasis aswell as physical emphasis in the trapezius musculus. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.macses.ucsf.edu/research/allostatic/muscle.php # psychobiological Stress can do the baseball hurler to keep their shoulders in an unnatural defensive stance which creates tenseness. When a individual becomes under menace norepinephrine is released from the encephalon as portion of the â€Å" battle or flight † mechanism, this endocrine induced tenseness in the musculuss. If this tenseness is non relieved from the musculuss the musculuss will go stiff and will non hold their full scope of motion.— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — –If the shoulder does non hold full scope of motion because it is tense, its snap will be r educed as the musculus attempts to keep its ego in a inactive province. Every tissue has an elastic bound, this is described as the maximal burden that a stuff can prolong without lasting distortion or harm. Elasticity is needed to convey a musculus back to its normal length after it has been stretched out. Decreased snap can besides do stiffness in the musculus. Hill ( 1968 ) has provided grounds that in normal resting musculus cells, a little grade of cross-bridge interaction occurs and moderate cross-bride interaction occurs in tense musculus. This interaction must lend to evident musculus stiffness and loss of snap. If the hurler has a stiff shoulder with decreased elastic capacity, when they carry out the sequence of throwing stages the musculus will non shorten back to its original length every bit rapidly as when it is non tense. Repeatedly throwing will get down to weaken the musculus even further and the musculus will go even stiffer to seek and protect its ego from over stretching. This alone could do cryings in the musculus. The hurler may disregard the stiffness and seek to work the musculus harder to antagonize the fact that the musculus is stiffening its ego. The hurler will damage the tissues if they carry on and micro cryings will develop which could increase in figure and do one big tear. hypertext transfer protocol: //fionastefani.hubpages.com/hub/PhysiologyofStress In baseball hurlers, the overload of pitching has been linked with hurt and redness of the musculuss of the shoulder girdle composite. Pappas, A.M. , R.M. Zawacki, C.F. McCarthy. 1985. Rehabilitation of the fliping shoulder American Journal of Sports Medicine 13:223-235. Dillman CJ, Fleisig GS, Andrews JR. Biomechanics of fliping with accent upon shoulder kinematics. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1993 ; 18:402-8.— — — — — — — — –Int Orthop. 2010 October ; 34 ( 7 ) : 1049-1058. Published on-line 2010 May 19. Department of the Interior: 10.1007/s00264-010-1038-0 PMCID: PMC29890322.Posterosuperior and anterosuperior encroachment of the shoulder in overhead athletes-evolving constructsChlodwig Kirchhoff and Andreas B. Imhoff— — — — — — — — — — —3.Skeletal Muscle Fatigue: Cellular MechanismsD. G. Allen, G. D. Lamb, and H. Westerblad Department of the Interior: 10.aˆâ€ ¹1152/aˆâ€ ¹physrev.aˆâ€ ¹00015.aˆâ€ ¹2007 Physiol Rev January 2008 vol. 88 no. 1 287-332

Conflict in Society Essay Example

Conflict in Society Essay Example Conflict in Society Essay Conflict in Society Essay On top of that, it can be argued by functionalist sociologists that society tends towards consensus and it is vital in the upbringing of any society. It is argued that conflict in society is not desirable as it destroys consensus, yet change is a must. Therefore, wholesale change is rejected but minor changes are tolerated in the functionalist point of view. This relates to culture in many ways as culture tends towards consensus. It(culture) must be agreed upon by various members of society if it is to be implemented. As example, pre-maritial sex is frowned upon in todays different levels of society [s5]and it has to be of a unanimous decision by society to condemn such behavior. But on the other hand, it is also true that change is needed in cultures of society, as example, dating among teenagers. It was almost a taboo back in the golden days for teenagers to date, but along with time, cultures will change as well, in an effort to gain stability and these days dating among teenagers is a common thing as well as understood among the various members of society. Francois de la Rochefoucauld (1680) quotes that the only constant in life is change and culture in society changes along with the advancement of mankind, so that they are not considered out-of-date and anachronous. Functionalists argue that the main institutional groupings play a tremendous role in determining the culture of society. These, as example include economic, politics, family and kinship, as well as media. Economic growth plays a role as well because it affects the way certain societies think and how they run their everyday lives. As example, the poor economy in Third- world countries such as Afghanistan has forced them to accept the growth of poppy plants, which is used to create cocaine AS an economic byproduct, even when it is a country governed by Muslim leaders who strongly oppose drugs. Politics affect culture as well because certain political parties will affect the lifestyles and culture of the people under the ruling party. A good example that we can use here is the differences between ruling parties in Malaysia, PAS, which is of an Islamic ideology[s6] does not allow material entertainment such as theaters and pubs in the states under their influence. This in hand, causes the teenagers living in these states to find other methods of escaping the stress and their teenage angst, causing them to experiment with drugs, devil worshipping, random sex and even membership into gangs. Furthermore, another example is the legalisationlegalization of prostitution in Singapore. This in hand, has successfully reduced the number of rape cases in Singapore as the culture of sex is no more a taboo and those who cannot find any other way of releasing their sexual stress before, can now. Although controversial, it has proved to have curbed the rape cases in Singapore and produced a safer environment. Conflict theorists such as Karl Marx argue that that economic inequality is at the heart of all societies[s7].. In short, some people will have more than their fair share of a societys economic resources (money) and others will consequently have less than their fair share. This, according to Marxists, will create a variety of new ideas, such as giving people new ideas of gaining wealth and making sure that the most qualified people are doing the important jobs. example, when a candidate for an interview of equal capability is forced to compete with other candidates, he has to innovate a new style or flair to stand out from the others. Moreover, MarxiansMarxians argue that the end product of economic organisation and inequality is common values. Marxist Conflict theorists argue that all modern societies consist of the common appeareance of a stable culture, which is actually masks the reality of all the competing forms. They argue that every society consists of social classes made up by terms of whether they own or do not own htethe means of ecnomiceconomic production and that ultimately, there only are two classes that make up the bundle of society, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.