Effective Diversity strategic management Essay

When the two important and big companies merge takes place it is necessary to understand the level of conflicts that will arise. So to avoid the conflicts its necessary that they companies create a diverse atmosphere for all the workers. Mapfre is a Spanish insurance company which is based in Majadahonda, Madrid. The name comes from the old mutual origin of the company (but the company now only refers to itself as MAPFRE. It is the leading insurance company in Spain and the largest non-life insurance company in Latin America. The company purchased Webster, Massachusetts-based Commerce Insurance Group, a major provider of motor insurance, for over â‚ ¬1.5 billion in October 2007.MAPFRE was listed in the Fortune Global 500 list on its 2008 edition. Rafael Nadal is officially sponsored by the company. The IT field person explained he is undergoing different kinds of racial discrimination’s so due to which he is not able to grow and develop himself fully in the company. The que stions that I would like to ask in the interview are:- 1) That how does the IT person will tackle culture difference in MAPFRE 2) Any way he would like to bridge the gap 3) Or he would like to be quite with everyone so as to increase the differences? 4) Will cultural difference impact his working 5) How will he try to adapt in this new culture While taking the interview of the person I understood the company basically lacks the diversity in the work place criteria, (Harvey, Carol P., 2012). Diversity in the work place means that there are many types of groups to which the employees belong and these groups are not limited to things age, sex, gender, sexual orientation, educational background, geographic location, income, wedded status, armed experience, parental status, religious attitude, work knowledge, and job organization. A primary goal of  analyzing diversity in my workplace is to check the strengths, identify all the weakness and maximize the most value for human capital as well. As I work in a bar the most there important strength on which their diversity depends is the kind of ambiance and services they provide. The ideal way to judge diversity in our bar is to have looked at the employees, looking at potential customers and setting the place according to them (Mayhew, , 2009). Effective Diversity strategic management can be created for our bar by contributing to achieve its set goals and targets effectively. The bar tenders are to proper trained, and reduction in employee dissatisfaction. If there will be diversification in the work force than there will reduction in an employer’s risk for discrimination or other kind of harassment lawsuits. The bar mangers should make programs so as to attract, recruit and have programs from different back grounds, cultures, companies etc so as to increase the production and creation of innovative solutions so as to meet all the different challenges of bars. Having different people together will create a positive atmosphere and many more customers will be attracted towards the bar. Making proper communication among the employees and motivating them to give their best will also help in developing diversity in the work place (Mayhew, , 2009). Having effective strategic managers recognize the capability to work in a global market. The workers must be able to feel that they are working in a safe and productive environment. The managers must take proper steps so as to establish business conduct and makes and regulations so that they don’t face any kind of harassment or any kind of discrimination. The management needs to act more constantly and moderately so that the employees learn from them and become more loyal , committed and focused towards their jobs.bar is a kind of place where different types of people come , some people who can create fuss for small things which can hamper the working atmosphere for the bar . So to avoid all this its necessary that management keep proper security etc so that proper peace in the working place is maintained. Thus by doing the above mentioned there can be proper diversity in the bar and  all the employees will be more dedicated towards their work. The organizational responsibility within any organization is to keep the environment clean and healthy. They should not use such things which have effect on the community services and degrade the society, (Harvey, Carol P., 2012). The company should follow the corporate social responsibility which aims to see the company actions and also encourage a positive impact on the activities of environment, consumers, employees, communities, stakeholders etc. it’s the duty of the organizations it operated directly with people who are affected by the business activities. An organization main responsibility is to support the public interests or have minimized the negative impact on the surroundings of ht community as well. An organizations become responsible to the community can promote the charitable acts by the employees and also minimize the risk of pollution as well. The individual Responsibility within a community is that he should be complete in control regarding his actions and deeds taking place in the community. He should keep the environment clean and friendly so that his nearby surrounding are effected and the community over all becomes a better place to live in. thus the individual responsibility is to check his actions whereas the organizations responsibility to take care of all the things which are effecting the environment due to them. The project manager is the one who should be able to control and see what the areas that tend to see the conflicts are arises. The first task for the project manager is to understand himself that what project planning is needed. He needs to make the process of change information which will be distributed and interested by the staff in many ways, (Harvey, Carol P., 2012). In this process there will be importance in managing the expectations and also dealing with the confusions which people will have regarding the new work. He will need to understand that what policies and procedures are to be change. The employees are not responsible to manage the changes , the employees responsibility and for which there are different for all the persons depends n the variety of factors like health,  maturity, stability, experience, personality, motivation, etc. the responsibility for managing the change in any processes which are made in the organization. The manger has the responsibility to make and facilitate and enable changes which are applied within the statements and which are needed to understand the situation (ric k, 2011). The change management is only possible when there are proper measurements which are to be considered in the planning of change and before any actions which are to be undertaken, (Harvey, Carol P., 2012). it will be completely successful when the change management plan helps to motivate the employees so as to perform their desired new activities. There should be measurement of the work which helps to provide the guidance towards goal achievement of the firm. In this case installation of a new company-wide computer system, but also the implementation of new processes is the current goal for the project managers. There are many types of conflicts which arise in the organizations. When there are managerial expectations than there tends to arise conflicts. It’s the job of the employees so as to meet the expectation are to be misunderstood, conflicts which can arise, (Harvey, Carol P., 2012). Managers need to make more communication with their goals to employees and also than which there confirming the goals in writing. A manger should be also to encourage her employees so as to ask the questions regarding the goals and also the regular meetings of the goals and also how to best so as to reach them. If the department requires information from the department in order to complete a job than the other department must respond to the request for the information, (Cox, Jr., Taylor, 1991).Some interdepartmental also disagree regarding the non responsive attitude which creates problems only. Another way of creating this sort of conflicts are to give a circular response which are to be under the review. When the people of departments are very late in responding to the request than there could be problems in the organizations so to avoid this communication is very necessary , (Harvey, Carol P., 2012). REFERENCES:- Mayhew, , R. (2009). How to analyze diversity in the workplace. Retrieved from http://www.ehow.com/ rick, T. (2011). change managment. Retrieved from http://www.torbenrick.eu/ Harvey, Carol P. (2012). Understanding and Managing Diversity. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. pp. 51–55. ISBN 0-13-255311-2. Cox, Jr., Taylor (1991). â€Å"The Multicultural Organization†. Academy of Management Executive, 5(2), 34-47.

The story of “Like Water for Chocolate”

The story of â€Å"Like Water for Chocolate† is about the relationship of the mother, Mama Elena, to his three daughters namely Rosaura, Getrudis and Tita. The setting was in Mexico where the life there before had been portrayed. It goes with the love story of the protagonist â€Å"Tita† and her love interest Pedro Muzquiz. Since the mother of the three girls is already a widow, she refuses to accept that her youngest daughter had already fallen in love with someone. Instead, she imposed to the people in that set up that Tita, being the youngest of her daughters must be with her until her soul leaves her. Quoting from the book, Mama Elena told Nacha that â€Å"Nacha! Don't say that. As my youngest daughter, Tita will care for me until the day I die. She won't marry.† This is one of the sayings in the book from the site mentioned below. Adding to the pain the imposing of her mother, Pedro married one of her sisters, and that is Rosaura. She was badly hurt emotionally with the situation but still can’t find anyway to get free of it. Since Tita is suppressed with what she feels, she just managed to improve her recipes, giving them her best effort and affection. On the later part of the story, she made her talent her way of capturing and cornering Pedro. Fortunately in the end, they still managed to express their love for one another like what Getrudis, (her older sister) have done with the revolutionary army she fell in love with. Being affected by the bad things that happened to Tita, Getrudis also found a way to escape their very imposing mother. Mother and daughters are expected to have good relationships at home since they are of the same gender. The changes that a daughter would undergo must be first known by her mother in order for her to be guided or so, like if the daughter will have to recite on her class the next morning, it is the duty of the mother to guide her with the things that will improve the speech or knowledge of her daughter. The relationship between the mother and the daughter I think will serve as a foundation of the girl’s interaction with other people with her entire life. Mothers are always thought to become the light of the home. They are regarded to be in charged of the household chores like for dish washing, cooking, doing the laundry and cleaning the house. As it was established by the society, the mother also gives her daughter the ideas of the things she may become after her childhood. It is with the mother that the daughter will learn the basic ways of life, the social roles of women and other stuffs. Girls that have time with their mothers might have experiences that have molded them the way they are in their past, present and future. And for those who are born without their moms with their side might also have the factors why they became what they are since they do not have someone who is expected to primarily guide them. Is the relationship of the mother and daughter really connected with the issue of power and gender? In this assignment, we are to examine the relationship of Getrudis and her mother in order to answer the question above. Getrudis as we remember is the middle child of Mama Elena who was not so mentioned in the story since it all went for Tita and Rosaura who is the wife of Pedro. Getrudis, being the silent one with the happenings in Tita’s life, is also suppressed of her freedom. When she found someone who will awaken her sexuality, she eloped with him and then after came back since the war is going to start again. We can say that there are a few interactions with the mother and the daughter here since the mother already imposed her power over her daughters, I think she has given them the factor that she must be respected or so, and that is dictating them that mothers have power more than what they have. In the set-up of the family, everybody searches for power, however, it was the social structure of the family and the place where they are situated that influenced their aspired power. Since it was during the Mexican Revolution, which is a way bit far from our present situations, certain family traditions are still existent. And with their family, their mother forbade their search for power and it was with that act they forcefully found it by also expressing their sexualities. In the situation of Getrudis where she was with the man of her dreams, it was with escaping with Sargento Trevià ±o that her gender came into action. Girls that expressed their love with their sweet and enticing scents are like Getrudis who found a way of being her real self, a woman who was implanted with the desires that only a man can suffice. Taking in consideration the situation of Getrudis and Mama Elena, I can say that a daughter’s relationship with her mother affects the way she faces her life. Since power and gender are parts of being a human, it is expressed by the way the daughters are molded by their contact with their moms. Both the positive and negative parts of the relationship between a mom and a daughter give rise to the searching of identity of someone. Therefore, in evaluating a person’s power or gender, it is right to look first at his/her background where he/she might have gotten his/her personalities. Works Cited Amy Coffin. Like Water for Chocolate. 9 December 2007.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Judi Clark. Like Water for Chocolate (books review). 1999. 9 December 2007.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Like Water for Chocolate.2006. 11 December 2007.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Internet Movie Database. Memorable quotes for Como agua para chocolate. 2007. 12  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   December 2007. < http://imdb.com/title/tt0103994/quotes> Laura Esquivel. Quotes from Like Water for Chocolate : A Novel in Monthly  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Installments with Recipes, Romances, and Home Remedies. 2007. 12  Ã‚   December 2007.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        

My mom is a wonderful woman

Have you ever had that one person that you have looked up to your whole life? Well i have, and that person is my mom. My mom is a wonderful woman. She puts up with my attitude and all of the annoying things i may put her through, and she is still there for me when i need her. My mom is someone that i love and that i can rely on if i need something. I know she will never let me down and that is why i can depend on her for anything. I can trust my mom and that is a problem i have with other people.I have never really been able to trust anybody. My mom has helped me a lot in life whether its figuring out how to do something, helping me achieve my goals, or telling me not to give up. I can ask my mom for advice and talk to her about anything. My mom is the main reason that i am doing sports in high school. I have always wanted to do sports but i have always been shy and scared to try new things. I didn't want to try out because i was afraid i wouldn't make the team. She encouraged me to try and and i made the team thanks to her.I can talk to my mom about anything. My mom was there for me when i switched schools and i didn't know anybody. I would talk to her and she would tell me just be your self and don't let anybody change you. She is someone i constantly go to when i have no one to talk to. We might play around a lot but I know when she is joking and i know when she is being serious with me. My mom is the best person in the world. My mom has always believed in me. She told me to always try my best.She told me that even if i feel like I'm going to fail to always try me hardest because i never know what could happen. She also told me to never give up. She told me that before i started doing sports that as long as i try my hardest she will supply me with everything i need to succeed. My mom has helped me make a lot of decisions. She helped me figure out that i wanted to join a sport, she helped me decide if i wanted to do an honors class or not, and she talked to m e about joining and advanced placement class.My mom is the main reason i am the person i have grown up to be. If she wasn't her for me i would have probably been a totally different person. Even though i get on my moms nerves all the time she still puts up with me and she still loves me. There is a couple of times were we have argued with each other, but we easily get over that. I look up to my mom and i hope that when I'm a mom my kids will look up to me like i look up to my mom.

COns Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

COns - Essay Example It did so to improve its profitability. The essay entails an assessment of the effectiveness of the unique rebranding and marketing strategy developed and adopted by CMG. Chipotle Mexican Grill (CMG) is a chain of restaurants with its major operations in U.S.A Canada, Germany, U.K., and France. The company falls under the Indices S& P 500 Retail-Eating Places industry. It is listed on the New York Stock Exchange Market and supplies a variety of unique foods. The company was started by one Steve Ells back in 1998 in Colorado, with only 16 restaurants (Chipotle Mexican Grill 2015). Chipotle became an entity in 2006 when McDonald Company considered divesting its operations, due to increased investments. Today, the company has more than 1600 location internationally. Its annual net income is more than US $300 million. The company total employs more than 45,000 people today (Chipotle Mexican Grill 2015). The main menu offered by the company comprises burritos, tacos, burrito bowls, and salads. The pricing of these foods depends on the type of ingredients mix used for each. Some of the ingredients are pork carnitas, chicken, barbacoa, steak, and vegetables. These foods are made of raw, fresh and healthy ingredients that are obtained through classic cooking techniques. They are usually dished up in unique environments. The company’s vision focuses on providing Food with Integrity. Chipotle is looking forward to providing healthier foods from various fresh ingredients, including ingredients that are grown naturally. To make such foods, the company takes caution while making selections from the animals, land, and the farmers. Nearly all the meat foods supplied by Chipotle restaura nts are raised naturally. According to Chipotle Mexican Grill (2015), they are described as â€Å"coming from animals that are never given antibiotics or added hormones and that are raised responsibly.† Chipotle founder CEO, Steve Ells, once said, "When I created Chipotle in 1993,

Recomendation letter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Recomendation letter - Essay Example ons, immense attention to details, commitment and apposite ethical behaviors, who cares on the implication of medical practices on the environment and individuals, that are quite germane in the radiological field. He excellently interacts with patients and professionals in the workplace and all those who had the opportunity to associate with him can testify the elation and happiness that he brought to them. Similarly, he undertook an informal leadership role offering help to his co-workers who incessantly sought his support and advice. He proved to be a distinguished problem-solver, a trait that can be put to proper utilization in the MRI field and save many lives. Given the chance to pursue the MRI degree, Nabil will surely blossom to be a reputable professional and an imperative asset to the entire community; his brilliance in the field will not be a shocker to me and anybody who knows him. It is for the aforementioned reasons that I unequivocally and without any hesitation recommend Nabil Kafal for the MRI program at Providence

Artist Statement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Artist Statement - Essay Example Some of the information include the creature habitats and habits. Further, nocturnal photos can be used in studying the rare animals that only come out at night because during the day they hide in their caves. These animals are known as nocturne creatures. Additionally, nocturnal photos on animals can be stored in archives for future reference thus act as a source of information to researches and zoology students in educational centres. In addition, this practice of taking photos is essential in establishing the near extinction animals. Thus helps to trigger the need to protect them from extinction by establishing measures that will mitigate the rate of extinction. However, nocturnal photos promotes art because it gives artisans ideas on what to draw and even curve thus enhancing creativity. Additionally, from the curves and the drawing future generations can learn about the creatures. Moreover, this photos in a way help to market countries to tourists who are in love with animals and wish to explore more. Through this, a country will receive an increase in the number of tourists visiting their nation, hence uplifting it gross domestic product. Furthermore, the characteristics that accompany the nocturnal photos can be of great use to game wardens by educating them on how to handle those animals effectively to avoid damage or injuries since some of them are poisonous. Secondly, nocturnal photos about human beings are taken in special occasions conducted during the night. Events like film shooting, fire bourn parties and many more. Therefore, these photos can be stored and referred to in future to remember the Good times in a person’s life. Thirdly, nocturnal photos about unique structural features are used to highlight the features of a nation. By doing this it will attract tourism to their states. This structural nocturnal photos can also be places in school libraries to teach the students

CSR - corporate social responsibility Assignment

CSR - corporate social responsibility - Assignment Example While critics indicate that CSR is mostly a self-interest and PR practice with no benefits to the society (Margolis and Walsh, 2003), supporters of the concept believe that it provides value for businesses, societies and ecosystems (Porter and Crammer, 2006). According to Haigh and Jones (2006), CSR has great potential as a strategy for value addition both business and the environment if two important conditions are achieved. The first condition is that CSR has to be integrated in the company’s core strategy while the second condition is that the company should be able to monitor the additional values resulting from the CSR. Manufacturing companies, like all other businesses, have embraced the concept of CSR for its benefits. CSR is particularly important for manufacturing firms because of the impact of their activities on the environment which have been associated with pollution and climate change. Over the past two decades, CSR strategy for environmental sustainability has been made a legal requirement for manufacturing companies in most countries (Smith, 2010). One of the companies that have been affected by this is Nokia Siemens Corporation. The company has had to come up with CSR strategies both for meeting legal requirements and for its own benefits, this paper examines the CSR strategy of Nokia Siemens Corporation, benefits of the strategy, one environmental concern it has to cope with and strategies for dealing with it. Nokia Siemens Corporation has one of the most detailed and globally recognized CSR strategies for the environment which basically touches on two important areas, products and services. Every year, the company continues to search for various possibilities for reduction of the environmental impact of its devices ad operations at each and every stage of their product life cycles (Nokia Siemens Corporation, 2012). The company largely focuses on material usage, energy efficiency, manufacturing processes, and recycling. According

Difference between service base and population base Research Paper

Difference between service base and population base - Research Paper Example As net CNU is a vital thing in estimation of population counts there is much concentration in population census. It starts with a summarized census collection process description and universe population definition and summarizes with processes used for CNU (Bureau of Census, 2010) On the other hand, service base is system of information for managing service processes. The services should be for IT services, technical support and servicing. It focuses knowledge from the management service of a company into a single source, allowing it for effective usage and sharing. The service base operator application gives users and consumers with online back up with all benefits arising from management process. It is a 100% application on website that uses internet in communicating with customers. The communication provided is through secured protocols. The IT system is completely configurable from a basic solution to value that is full for problem management and incident management including services of configuration database. A successful description of solved problems is easily exported to knowledge that is separated into classes by various users’ and products access rights (Foulkes,

Economic Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Economic Development - Essay Example Government pledged a united commitment towards the realization of the fifteen year satelite vision, and by 2015 Government were expected to have fully implemented the vision. In particular, Millinieum development Goal 7 states Combat HIV/ AIDS, Malaria and other diseases. This unilateral effeort saw the reduction of some disease in prone countries like Kenya. In particular, Tetanus was a prone disease that affected all ages in kenya. Tetanus is a prolonged medical condtion that involves contraction skeletal muscle fibers. MDG established primary symptoms neurotoxin, Gram- Positive, Obligate anaerobic, rod-shaped, and bacterium clostridium tetani. Infection is caused by wound contamination through deep cuts or puncture wound. If the infection is not treated Muscle spasms progress to the lockjaw. However, the good thing is that infection can be prevented by pst-exposure prophylaxis or primary immunization. To regress tetanus tendancies in Kenya, MDG sought to focus on in protecting New borns against future infections. The results focuses on method to ensure in particular immuniations is enacted at child birt. MDG critically examined different methods applied in treating Tetanus, core visitation were appliance of Vaccine. This in case were substantial in preventing future infections. Secondly, MDG focused in the use of Antibiotics, this were substantial in curing tatanus, either through oral injection to fight against tetanus bacteria. Thirdly, application of Antitoxins, MDG advised the Kenyan Government on the fundamentality of using this method because of immune functionality. This method is substantial in neutralizing only toxin that has been bonded. Finally, MDG continously funded the application of other drugs; for instance, beta blockers or magnesium sulfate to ease muscle activitiy, heartbeat and breathing. The variables supplied in the XLS table were generated from a five year

Exchange Rate and Puchasing Power Parity Theory Essay

Exchange Rate and Puchasing Power Parity Theory - Essay Example Here, we will take a look at the concept that is the purchasing power parity and try to understand its implications on the currency exchange rates in the world. The best simplest way to describe Purchasing Power Parity, denoted by PPP, is by directly going into its application. So, PPP of the Gross Domestic Product for the countries around the world as of 2003, where we use the American economy as our base group and assign it a value of 100 would see the highest index value being appropriated to Bermuda i.e. 154. This basically means that goods that are sold in the Bermuda are 54% times more expensive as compared to those in United States. Now, the purchasing power parity theory makes use of the long term equilibrium exchange rate that exists between these two currencies in order to equalize the purchasing abilities of both the said currencies. This theory has been developed by the works of Gustav Cassel in 1920 and to put it in simplest terms, it is fundamentally the law of one price: the theory goes along the lines that in completely ideal and efficient markets, identical goods must have the same price regardless of the currency used in t he purchase of goods. By equalizing the purchasing power of different currencies in their home countries for a given basket of goods for different currencies, we can ascertain the purchasing power SEM rate. ... t are existent in a country as well as the similar rates of inflations from different countries as opposed to a generic nominal gross domestic product comparison. It is also a generally accepted notion that the most widely accepted and most often applied purchasing power parity exchange rate is the Geary-Khamis dollar; which is also known as the "international dollar". Changes in the PPP exchange rates: Purchasing power parity exchange rates; or what are known as 'real exchange rates' most often experience variability due to the exchange rate movements that taken place due to open market currency operations. Notwithstanding this type of value fluctuations, uniform variations of the market and the purchasing power parity exchange rates are observed. We have the example of the market exchange rates, which are usually priced for non-traded goods and services at a lower level than expected in the instances where the national incomes are also relatively low. This basically means that a U.S. dollar that is exchanged in Dubai for their local currency and then used to purchase body massages will buy a greater number of body massages as opposed to using the same U.S dollar in the United States to buy body massages. Purchasing Power Parity takes into account this lower cost of living in Dubai and makes specific adjustments in order to for it to appear as if the entire income was being consum ed in the local country. From another viewpoint purchasing power parity is the number of a certain set basket of basic goods that can be purchased in a given country with the money that is produced by the said country. PPP exchange rates and the market exchange rates: There can be immense differences between the purchasing power parities and the market exchange rates between any set of

Exam paper on business strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Exam paper on business strategy - Essay Example Its limitation is that two firms of same industry with MBV- strategy do not grow with similar pace despite opting for similar options. For example, firms opt to sail the ocean for being the safest alternate without sailor in the team while ignoring mountain-ing for being less attractive alternative despite having skilled mountaineers. RBV based strategy ignores the demand side of the business. It relies solely on the endogenous aspect and ignores the exogenous factors’ effect on firm. Hence, to void the limitation, firm has lent support from both views complementing each other than contrast. Apple Inc’s success is the strategy being combination of both views. For instance, team with innovative skills exploited the market factors that welcome changes in new dimensions; hence giving hit products like iPod, iPad. ANSWER 3 Greiner’s Theory (1972) refers that firm growth is a subset of six phases each comprising of stable growth followed by a challenge before entering the succeeding phase. It suggests that phases occur in series; therefore, predictable challenges (evolution) to be accounted in a predictable way (revolution). Firm initially grows with creativity and establishing position in the market and after some time it faces challenge of leadership crises. This challenge requires professional management for further growth. Growth in second phase continues to expand with direction and increase in scale hence, leads to issues in managing thing by few personnel. Evolution of structural change mainly with delegation of power becomes the need to maintain survival. Upon delegation development, firm grows through third phase for some time and lands to the control crises. It now requires business to strengthen connections among the business -units to maintain growth in single direction with co-ordination and monitoring. 4th phase of growth through connectivity ends up to red tape issues and bureaucracy. These issues hamper growth again requiring man agement to induce collaborative culture than centralized control. Collaborative culture results firm fostering with more of matrix and team based structures but also ends up once firm has exploited maximum of the internal capabilities and faces internal growth crises. Evolution from this crisis requires firm to shake hands with complementary organizations to maintain growth. This sixth stage growth, recently added, refers to merger, networks, alliances, outsourcing etc. Growth rate in phases vary from company to company and even within company from phase to phase. However, longer the phases harder it will be implement transition by catering crises. ANSWER 4 Resources and Competencies held by organization are all not of equal strength when evaluated on the yardstick to provide firm a competitive advantage against competitors. Strength of the Resource Based View refers that resources and competencies that possess value, rarity, inimitability and non-substitutability characteristics, a cronym as VRIN, are of immense importance to organization. Organizational strategy aligning VRIN-resources and competencies with external environmental factors form the foundation of success. Successful organization such as Wall- Mart (Strong Supply Chain), Tesco (UK national and supply Chain), Apple (Innovative Human Resource), Starbucks (expertise in providing premium flavour of coffee) have profited globally upon strategically by

Book of Life Essay Example for Free

Book of Life Essay Human Resource Management A Review of Training Methods at Capital One Corporation(choose ur company) Summary 0 Introduction 0 The Training Manager(responsible for delivering training)- talk about training manager and his responsibilities 0 Mode of Training Delivery at Capital One Corporation-I . talk about how training could be delivered to meet the needs of workers 2. Talk about the type of delivering method you think will help the rganisation, either instructor led method or self- placed method and state why u think the method you chose will be beneficial to the other. 0 Identification of Training Needs . Talk about identification of training needs and its importance. 0 Conclusion 0 Recommendations 0 References Personal and Managerial Effectiveness Challenges of workforce diversity in Sony Corporation(choose ur company) Introduction 0 Workforce Diversity (Sony Corporation)- 1 . alk about the company ure using

Terrorism And The Society

Terrorism And The Society HYPOTHESIS: Terrorism is a forceful and unlawful method to achieve the desired goal. Its sole motive is to overthrow the existing law and order machinery. It is a deliberate use of violence against civilians and armed personnel and the state. INTRODUCTION Before we get into Terrorism and its effects on Society, we must clearly understand what terrorism means. Terrorism isnt a new term, and though it has been used since the beginning of recorded history, it is still relatively hard to define. It has been described both, as a tactic and a strategy; a crime and a holy duty; a justified reaction to oppression and an inexcusable abomination. It is quite obvious that a lot depends on from whose point of view the term is being explained. Terrorism is often an effective tactic for the weaker side in a conflict. Being asymmetric form of conflict, it is able to confer coercive power with many advantages of military force at a much lower cost. The small size and secretive nature of terrorist organizations are the reasons why they often offer opponents no clear organization to defend against or to deter. Terrorism has, in some cases, been a method to carry on a conflict without the opponent realizing the nature of the threat, mistaking terrorism for criminal activity. Due to these attributes, terrorism has become increasingly common among those pursuing extreme goals throughout the world. But despite its popularity, terrorism can be a vague and hazy concept. Terrorism is a criminal act that influences an audience beyond the immediate victim. The terrorists have a strategy. That is, to commit acts of violence that draws the attention of the local people, the government, and the world to their cause. The planning of their attacks is such as to obtain the greatest publicity and to choose targets that symbolize what they oppose. It is not the terrorist act itself that gives effectiveness to the act, but rather the public or governments reaction to the act. For example, in the 1972 Munich Olympics, the Black September Organization killed 11 Israelis. Even though the Israelis were the immediate victims, the true target was the estimated one billion people watching the event on television. There are three basic perspectives of terrorism, namely, the victims, the general publics, and the terrorists. The phrase one mans terrorist is another mans freedom fighter is a view that terrorists themselves would accept. They do not see themselves as evil. They believe themselves to be licensed soldiers, fighting for what they believe in, by whatever means possible. A victim of a terrorist act sees the terrorist as an offender, a felon, a criminal with no regard for human life. The general publics view is the most unstable. India has been affected more by terrorism than other countries. India has faced more significant terrorist attacks than most countries in recent times, and the attacks on the Mumbai commuter rail system makes the fact clear that the threat of terrorism still persists. India, like other countries, has responded by enacting special antiterrorism laws. In the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and the attacks soon thereafter on the Jammu Kashmir Assembly and the Indian Parliament buildings, India enacted the Prevention of Terrorism Act of 2002 (POTA). POTA incorporated many of the provisions found the Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act of 1985, an earlier law that remained in effect until 1995. While POTA was potentially repealed in 2004, cases pending at the time of repeal have proceeded. The government has preserved some of POTAs key provisions by reenacting them as amendments to the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act of 1967. Some of the commonly agreed characteristics of a terrorist movement are: 1) Violence 2) Psychological impact and fear 3) Perpetrated for a political goal 4) Deliberate targeting of non-combatants 5) Unlawfulness or legitimacy REVIEW OF LITERATURE Colonial Continuities: Human Rights, Terrorism and Security Laws in India is an article written by Anil Kalhan. It examines Indias anti-terrorism and other security laws. POTA and other Indian antiterrorism laws have raised a host of human rights issues, some of which are similar to those raised by antiterrorism laws in other countries, including the United States. Such concerns include, overly broad and ambiguous definitions of terrorism that fail to satisfy the principle of legality. Global Terrorism and Major Indian Legislations as the name suggests is an article on terrorism that explains the meaning of global terrorism and how the Indian Government is trying to fight against terrorism by making laws etc. It examines how effectively provisions in the Indian Penal Code, 1860 can deal with offences related to global terrorism. From Socio-economic imbalance to Terrorism-The Case of North East India is an article written by Siddhartha Mitra. It sheds light on the causation that has led to the association between high incidence of terrorist activity and the low level of affluence in the North East region. An imbalance is also created by the high level of literacy which facilitates the creation of discontented politically motivated terrorist groups as a reaction to the mentioned outcomes. OBJECTIVE The series of bomb-blasts in India, (Bangalore, Ahmedabad, Delhi, Mumbai and now Pune) and the less publicized killings in Kashmir, Orissa, Assam, Gujarat, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, seems to be part of a pre-planned and calculated program of terror-generation by various fundamentalist groups. These disruptive forces must be resisted and while standing united as Indians, we should think of strategies and tactics for promoting peace and eliminating terrorism from India.. With this intention, I am attempting to elicit, compile and analyse peoples views and ideas on how best to deal with this imminent threat. My objective is to create a useful document that will reflect the perceptions of citizens on the causes of terrorism and the concrete steps required to be taken to promote peace. SURVEY The people answering the questions preferred to remain anonymous, I have interviewed eight people, asking them FIVE basic questions, being: 1. How can we fight against Terrorism? 2. Is the government in denial about Terrorism in India? 3. Do we all agree that Terrorism is he outcome of Religious Teachings? 4. How can we stop Terrorism? 5. Does our country need strong laws to fight terrorism? 1.HOW CAN WE FIGHT AGAINST TERRORISM? 1.The government should start a separate department like the CBI and the Defense and President of India should control this department. This department should have all the powers to arrest anybody who is a suspect. Media should be kept away from this department so that media leaks no information. And common man should not fear these attacks, it is easy to say but following is not easy. 2. A fight against terrorism can be combated only by developing a collective conscience of religious tolerance and a focus on human rights conscience 3.Make every body educated from childhood that terrorism will never lead to any solution. 4. 1) By countering and prevention of attacks or possible attacks by force when and where possible to the maximum extent. As terrorists by nature are afraid and they are trying to use their fear for work for them. Enlighten their fear to an extend that they would think twice before they take up weapons 2)By opening ways of peace at the same time and trying to find a solution for the future if possible, but then again this is a game not of today but the future. This requires planning. A well planned and well executed operation of peace or war seldom fail. 4) Provide social security and livelihood means to the youth of the country so that they do not take up anti-nationalism as a means fro daily bread. 5) Educate people, for a well-educated person is less likely to be fooled by the utopian ideas of terrorist campaigners. 5. First foremost we have to possess a full fledged anti terrorist mind within ourselves. Where ever whenever we find any small activity of terrorism we have to raise our voice against it together, not alone create a fear in the evil minds devil terrorists instead of being scared of their killing attitude activities. This can only be possible if we stand united with full support of police govt. administration. To stop any such unsocial activities the whole country has to protest together put an end to TERRORISM. 6. By eradicating the differences of castes, creeds, community, reservations, unemployment etc. from the society and by educating the youth about the self esteem, self-reliance, self-motivation, self-sufficiency, etc. 7. Educating one all, then spreading awareness with providing financial security to every one, we can definitely remove terrorism. 8. Terrorism is a problem and any problem can be finished if we identify its root and act on it. So far no one is able to achieve this because all of us are acting on Terrorism with a motive to kill the terrorist but this may be impossible. In fact we should find the cause for why are people joining the terror outfits and should solve their resentments. Terrorism should in fact be solved with talks and not weapons. They attack us and then we do and then do it again and the cycle goes on. So blood with blood is not the solution. 2.IS THE GOVERNMENT IN DENIAL ABOUT TERRORISM IN INDIA? 1. The Government is always in denial mood about terrorism. The politicians are utilizing terrorism for their political benefit. So for them it can be defined as agitation to facilitate their purpose of winning seats and form Govt. Long live Terrorism but deny that those are within the purview of terrorism so long they help to retain political power this is the mood of the Government. It is clear from their activities. 2. Yes, as it could be seen by the fact that even after repeated terrorist attacks in Hyderabad, the Central Government has not finalized or even initialized a pan India Law dealing with such stupid acts. Also there is a desperate need for a more efficient Intelligence Agency. 3. This government is not at all serious about the terrorism. They dont want to implement any good laws against the terrorist and also removed POTA. This indicates the bad game played by this government behind the scenes. 4. No. Rather Government has set up anti-terrorist squads across the country in strategic fields. In Police, Military everywhere theyve these squads working. Further, what about Laws? Our Indian parliament passed many laws to deal with the situations. India is one of those countries, which are facing terrorism. 5. The Government is not in denial about terrorism. It has shown great activeness in the Kashmir issue. But the real thing is that the government is ignoring the maintenance of a spy system. 6. No. It is rather in a state of blissful ignorance. They know very well that the threat of terrorism is real and has been here for a long time. What the government doesnt know now is that the general public is getting wise to this. They still peddle clichà ©d responses to such attacks in the belief that we, the new age Indian Citizens, are not aware of the reality. Vote bank politics is the prime culprit if you ask me. Everything in this country is being given the colour and shape of communalism and minority bashing. If loss of so many lives in recent times is not enough for the mandarins and politicos to kick into action, I only wonder what will be. The mere thought of it gives me a shudder. 7. Yes, I thoroughly believe that Indian politics is not taking ample measures to correct the state of terrorism in the country. We always think that North East is the worst affected area but the bigger picture that we are neglecting is the expansion of the red corridor. Yes, its the Naxalism that is now affecting India from within India. Other than the terrorism from outside, see the condition of the states of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh. Our government is more busy on fighting over petty issues with Pakistan while they are not monitoring the internal insecurity and disrupt that is coming up strongly. 8. Government is doing their duty but still have to take some strong steps. 3.DO WE ALL AGREE THAT TERRORISM IS THE OUTCOME OF RELIGIOUS TEACHINGS? 1. Terrorism is nothing but ignorance of religion. 2. No religion teaches terrorism, but people practice terrorism in the name of religion 3. I strongly disagree that terrorism is the outcome of religious teaching, as every religion teaches peace and a way of making this world a better place to live. Terrorism is due to some corrupt people who use religion as their mask. 4. No, I do not agree fully. Religious fanaticism could be one of the factors of terrorism but there are other factors as well. Now almost all backward tribes are coming up with their legitimate demands that their lands be returned to them and getting no positive response, the youth took to Arms. The creation of ULFA was also on the similar note. This is not an unknown fact that the entire North East Region has been being treated with the step motherly attitude and negligence from the Center. There is a limit of everything. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨Secondly Governments failure to tackle the unemployment problem also added to the woes. Like this there are numerous causes that Terrorism finally got a shape and the blame goes to the ruling Govt. 5. It is not religion. It is power. Religion is just a reason behind the terrorism, No religion in this world preaches terrorism. Terrorists are just preaching their religion known to be terrorism. 6. No. Though it seems so, it is not so. No religion teaches hatred for other human beings. No religion teaches terrorism. All the religions teach love and brotherhood. 7. Actually terrorism should not be compared with any religion because terrorism has no religions. Terrorists do not believe in any religion but they just take the name of religion and do all terrorists activities everywhere. Hindu 8. This is one of many independent factors. But, look at LTTE, Naxalists, and Maoists all politically motivated hence aiming at only police and administration. This is no justification. They still stand cruel. 4.HOW CAN WE STOP TERRRORISM? 1.Spread love. What is the reason of terror? I think it needs great research and work. There is a big need to understand basic grounds and cause for it. And yes, our legal and political system is very important for it. Timely action and justice is very important. 2. Everyone should be a paragon of virtue, an ambassador of goodwill and a mentor of humanity. Try to follow the adage Charity begins at home. If you can cleanse your personal atmosphere, proceed to a larger section, the society and the community. Then move on to the Nation. If everyone makes a simple enough attempt, the society can be free of terrorism. 3. Government has to give police and defense forces more power. Separate department should be there which monitors only terrorists and their activities. This action force will only attend the cases, which are related to terrorism and stop the terror in the country. This body will be only controlled by the President of India and Chief Justice of Supreme court, no other MPs or ruling party has any say to this department. In this way one can bring down the terrorism to some extent. 4. There should not be any leniency towards these terrorist out laws and our security forces are to be given a free hand to engage them, and destroy them, for the crores of peaceful citizens of India to live safely without any fear. There should not be any political interference in this matter. 5. By not indulging politics religion in the fundamental book of law. 6. Empower and educate people. Create more potent terror laws. Involve the media 7. Terrorism can be stopped by public awareness as well applying POTA. 8. Monitoring these groups closely for signs of illegal activity. 5.DOES OUR COUNTRY NEED STRONG LAWS TO FIGHT TERRORISM? 1.Our Law is already powerful. Anyhow, we have to seal the holes in it. The terrorism problem is not only in India, its happened all over the World. Its against mankind. So we need strictly different approaches to eradicate this evil 2. Yes it does. 3. Stronger anti-terror measures are needed to combat homegrown militants. 4. We do not need a MISA, TADA or POTA. They are inhuman in nature. The present laws if used properly can deal with terrorism. 5. The existing laws are good enough. The problem is with the entire system. There has to be unbiased people working in our police, intelligence and defence department without a political agenda and without their own religious beliefs coming in the way of dealing with terror. Then and only then will we be able to wipe terrorism out, else we will push innocent victims towards terrorism. 6. We have very strong laws, but all the citizens and specially politicians must be faithful to the Nation to help solve the problem. 7. No. We do not require any more laws. Law cannot control terrorism. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨Instead it can be developed by better discipline. If you and me start to follow discipline, the question of TERROR will not appear à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨in the minds of the people 8.Yes, we do need strong laws to fight terrorism. ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND REMEDIAL MEASURES. From the above Survey we find, Terrorism is a great threat to our society in general. Different people have different opinions as to the ways in which terrorism can be countered. Everyone agrees that the law is essential to help control terrorism. Some believe that the existing laws are good enough as long as the Government does its duty and implements them properly, while others are of the opinion that stronger laws are required to fight terrorism. In the present day and age, people are aware that religion isnt the CAUSE of terrorism. It is merely an excuse used by the terrorists. Many blame the corrupt practices of the government and other powerful persons for the rise in terrorist activities. The negligence and suffering experienced by the terrorists in their childhood, or even later in in life have, in the opinions of some people, lead them to commit such evils. Terrorism poses a great threat to the law and order machinery of the state and leads to disintegration of society. The incidence of torture, extortion, murder, arson, kidnapping and mutilation, create an atmosphere of panic, fear and suspicion. Terrorists kill innocent, unarmed civilians. Life becomes uncertain. Violence and organized crime cause social disharmony. There is an end to economic development and heavy expenditure has to be made by the government to meet the challenges of terrorism. Facets of society, from freedom of religious expression to physical and political control over a region, are sought to be changed by terrorists. However, differences between societies results in different definitions of terrorism and great differences in characterizations of groups or individuals as terrorists. The pain, terror and sadness, the whole impact of terrorism has been difficult for people living around it and has invoked governments to raise their efforts to control terrorism. After the terrorist attacks in Mumbai in 2008, Indian Spiritual Guru, His Holiness Sri Sri Ravi Shankar said, This terrorist attack has left Indians in the grip of fear and anxiety. In this situation, religious and political leaders need to show the country that we stand together against terrorism. In order to remedy terrorism, we must inculcate a broader perspective of life, more than race, religion or nationality. We must educate people in human values of friendliness, compassion, cooperation and upliftment. We must help cultivate confidence in achieving noble aims by peaceful and non-violent means and we must create spiritual upliftment that will help weed out destructive tendencies. Along with this, the government needs to be proactive, there is a need for collective public safety and security measures, stringent action has to be taken by the enforcement agencies, there is need for an apex body to collect, coordinate and analyze data and there is also need for a timely, actionable intelligence which can be provided by HUMINT. All this will not be possible without winning the public support to combat terrorism effectively. Terrorism is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as the unofficial or unauthorized use of violence and intimidation in the pursuit of political aims. Terrorism is thus a forceful and unlawful method to achieve the desired goal. Its sole objective is to overthrow the existing law and order machinery. It is a deliberate use of violence against the civilians and armed personnel and the state. JUDICIAL RESPONSE TO TERRORISM IN INDA The Indian judiciary has been sensitive to the debate regarding the definition of Terrorist Activity. A pragmatic approach has been taken by the court to ascertain the elements of terrorism from the act allegedly committed by the accused, rather than going deep into a debate on what the exact definition of terrorism is. Even while public opinion was strongly against specialized statutes for tackling terrorism and the strong provisions of these statutes, the courts continuously upheld its constitutional validity, suggesting only some checks and balances. On the whole it can be summed up that Indian judiciary was an active partner in the countrys war against terrorism and has at all occasions risen above political and academic concerns to address the real issue of terrorism. CONCLUSION Since Independence in 1947, India has been the victim of various insurgencies and terrorism. The magnitude of attacks and their impacts have only increased over the years. Under these circumstances there is a need to include certain provisions to deal strongly and effectively with this issue in the Indian Penal Code, 1860 and the other major legislations like the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 and the Indian Evidence Act, 1872. Incorporation of a separate chapter in the Indian Penal Code that defines terrorism and other related offences could be a great step forward. Stringent and deterrent punishment could also be prescribed for such offences. The National Investigative Agency (NIA) Act, 2008 and the Prevention of Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Amendment Act 2008 are two effective legislations in this regard. One way of preventing these terrorist acts can be by reorganizing the entire Indian intelligence set up along the lines that the United States has done in the wake of the September 11 terror attacks. Thus, I conclude my paper on Terrorism and Society with what the Honourable Supreme Court of India, in Mohd. Khalid v. State of West Bengal observed. That is: Terrorism is one of the manifestations of increased lawlessness and cult of violence. Violence and crime constitute a threat to an established order and are a revolt against a civilized society. Terrorism has not been defined under TADA nor is it possible to give a precise definition of terrorism or lay down what constitutes terrorism. It may be possible to describe it as use of violence when its most important result is not merely the physical and mental damage of the victim but the prolonged psychological effect it produces or has the potential of producing on the society as a whole. There may be death, injury, or destruction of property or even deprivation of individual liberty in the process but the extent and reach of the intended terrorist activity travels beyond the effect of an ordinary crime capable of being punished under the ordinary penal law of the land and its main objective is to overawe the Government or disturb the harmony of the society or terrorize people and the society and not only those directly assaulted, with a view to disturb the even tempo, peace and tranquility of the society and create a sense of fear and insecurity.

Activities for Sc1 and Sc4 Skills Development

Activities for Sc1 and Sc4 Skills Development Primary Science Task Introduction It is important that assessment in primary science is linked to learning outcomes if it is to be successful (Hudson, 2005). It is therefore important that all primary teachers in science understand the learning outcomes which are appropriate to their year, and that learning activities and assessments are based on that. Most children in year 4 at school would be expected to be working between levels 2 and 5, although most children would only be expected to reach level 4 by the age of 11 (DirectGov, 2008). Here a set of activities based around circuits are discussed in terms of how they allow for development in Sc1 Scientific Enquiry and Sc4 Physical Processes skills. Assessment of Sc1 and Sc4 Skills In order to ensure appropriate development through both Sc1 and Sc4, it would be considered preferential to change the order of the learning activities. The first activity which would be approached would be that of the safety session. This would be approached first due to the importance of approaching safety considerations before approaching any practical activities utilising electricity. This activity is not only considered crucial to safety, but presents a good introduction to circuits, as the learning objectives would be considered to be at level 2 (L2) of Sc4. For example discussion of the differences between mains and battery electricity corresponds to pupils being able to compare the way in which devices work in different electrical circuits (QCA, n.d.). The learning outcomes of this activity, being able to record the characteristics of the devices using mains electricity, would also be at L2 of Sc1, which states that pupils should be able to describe observations using simple scientific vocabulary. The second activity approached would be that of looking at drawings of circuits. This is an important step before practical work with circuits as it may address some of the gaps in knowledge of circuits which may be present in children of this age (Glauret, 2008). The learning objectives and the activity itself allow for development from L2 of Sc 4 to L3. For example while knowing that a circuit needs a power source means that pupils are able to compare the way in which devices work in different electrical circuits (L2), it could also be developed so that pupils are able to discuss cause and effect (L3). The same could be said of the knowledge that a complete circuit is needed for a device to work. The actual activity itself, in which children look at drawings of circuits and decide and explain which will work and which will not could be performed at L2 of Sc1, where pupils are able to observe and compare objects and events, and say what is expected. It could however allow for develo pment to L3, where pupils are able to use their knowledge and understanding of physical phenomena to link cause and effect in simple explanations. By asking children to design a circuit which will work, record it, and annotate it, this is however only tackling L1 of Sc1 in terms of notation, where pupils are able to communicate their findings in simple ways (QCA, n.d.). Although not specifically addressed in this learning activity, it may also be useful to include some discussion in pairs or small groups. This is due to evidence that vocalisation of scientific concepts may help with development of scientific vocabulary (Mercer et al., 2004). This may then assist in developing from being able to communicate findings in simple ways (Sc1 L1) to using simple scientific vocabulary (Sc1 L2) and beyond. Using the third activity, in which pupils test their ideas about what make good conductors would allow for further development of Sc1 and Sc4. For example the learning objective about how to find out which materials allow electricity to pass through them could be approached from L1 if suggestions are actively offered to the pupils (Sc1 L1), or could be developed through the L4 if pupils are given freedom to design their own approach with lower levels of guidance. The learning objective relating to the development of the knowledge that some materials are better conductors of electricity than others relates to both L3 and 4 of Sc4. This involves development from being able to use knowledge to link cause and effect to being able to use knowledge to create generalisations. This development is also addressed by the objective that pupils are able to use results to draw conclusions about which materials conduct electricity. This objective also addresses development of L3 to L4 in Sc1 in tha t pupils develop from being able to provide explanations for their observations (L3) to pupils being able to relate their conclusions to patterns in their data and scientific knowledge. The specific learning outcomes of this activity would be that pupils would be able to use equipment to make observations, by being able to construct a circuit to test which materials let electricity pass through (Sc1 L2) and that they would be able to provide explanations for their observations by explaining that with some materials the bulb did not light because the circuit was not complete (Sc1 L3). This may even be developed through to Sc1 L4, where pupils begin to relate their conclusions to patterns in their data and scientific knowledge, if pupils are able to relate their findings to other sources of information. Rather than approach it as a separate activity, it would be better to incorporate the activity of making simple switches here, as it too relates to conductors and complete circuits. As such, it does not particularly offer further development of any of the learning targets, so does not warrant investigation as a separate session. As a development of the third activity, it then makes logical sense to proceed to discuss the uses of metals and plastics as conductors and insulators. This would lead to the development of Sc1 L4 if pupils were not previously able to relate their own work to outside information. This also includes exploring secondary sources, which can also be developed from L2 of Sc1 to L4, depending on the sophistication of sources used and what is done with the information. For example using the information to explain why metals are used for some purposes and plastics for others indicates being able to link cause and effect in simple explanations (Sc4 L3), although if pupils are also able to make generalisations about physical phenomena and use physical ideas to explain, then this may indicate development to L4. The final activity in the paper would be included last, as this is generally a culmination of the information gathered to this point, and offers development of Sc1 and Sc4 to L4. For example making predictions about what will happen indicates that pupils are able to make generalisations and use physical ideas to explain simple phenomena (Sc4 L4). Deciding how to change the brightness of bulbs and speed of a motor in a circuit also shows that pupils are able to decide on an appropriate approach towards answering a question and also able to vary one factor while keeping the others the same (Sc1 L4). Designing their own experiment also indicates that pupils are able to describe physical phenomena, for example how a particular device may be connected to work in a circuit (Sc4 L4). This type of self-directed activity may also be essential for some young children in developing scientific confidence (Glauert, 2005). Finally, a self-directed activity at the end of the series of sessions also allows for a better assessment of progress through the levels, as it allows for complete flexibility as to how much assistance is given in the task, thereby allowing for a better assessment of competency. Conclusions By utilising the appropriate activities from those given, it is possible to allow for development of both Sc1 and Sc4 right through from level 2 to level 4, which is appropriate for this age group. There is also some degree of flexibility in the levels which the selected activities could be approached from to allow for individual achievement levels within the class. The sessions lend themselves to culmination in a self-directed session, which allows for more accurate assessment of levels within Sc1 and Sc4. References DirectGov (2008) National curriculum teacher assessments and key stage tests. DirectGov. Available [online] from: http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Parents/Schoolslearninganddevelopment/ExamsTestsAndTheCurriculum/DG_10013041 [Accessed 22/08/2008]. Glauert, E.B. (2005) Making sense of science in the reception class. International Journal of Early Years Education, 13(3), 215-233. Glauert, E.B. (2008) How young children understand electric circuits: Prediction, explanation and exploration. International Journal of Science Education, DOI: 10.1080/09500690802101950. Hudson, P.B. (2005) Analysing preservice teachers’ rubrics for assessing students’ learning in primary science education. Proceedings Australian Curriculum Studies Association. Available [online] from: http://eprints.qut.edu.au/archive/00002102/ [Accessed 22/08/2008]. Mercer, N., Dawes, L., Wegerif, R. Sams, C. (2004) Reasoning as a scientist: Ways of helping children to use language to learn science. British Educational Research Journal, 30(3), 359-377. QCA (No date) Attainment targets for science. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. Available [online] from: http://curriculum.qca.org.uk/key-stages-1-and-2/subjects/science/attainmenttargets/index.aspx?return=/key-stages-1-and-2/subjects/science/keystage2/index.aspx%3Freturn%3D/key-stages-1-and-2/subjects/index.aspx [Accessed 22/08/2008].

Caroline in Jane Smileys A Thousand Acres :: Smiley Thousand Acres Essays

Caroline in A Thousand Acres It is really striking that a novel in which bodies of people and bodies of land (and, intertextually, bodies of text) are so central, creates a character that is so distinctly "unbodied": Caroline Cook. Nevertheless, it is in keeping with traditional and patriarchal interpretations of Cordelia's character in King Lear: a paragon of purity and transcendence. While her sisters' bodies are thoroughly described and, not least, imbued with meaning, Caroline is always described in terms of her business-like " 'take-me-seriously-or-I'll-sue-you' demeanor" (13), her expensive clothes and assertive actions. She is in fact described like a man, a trait first exposed when she as a child says that she's not going to be a farmwife when she grows up, but a farmer (61), then when Ginny has her moment of insight toward the end, and suddenly sees everybody clearly for what they are: "her eyes darting from one face to another, calculating, always calculating. [...] She climbs into Daddy's lap, and her gaze slithers around the room, looking to see if we have noticed how he prefers her." (306) She is still unbodied here, described in terms of eyes and mind. This is metaphorically a male domain; in Western thought, the gaze is traditionally male, categorizing external reality in order to have power over it by utilizing reason. Nor, of course, is it incidental that Caroline is the educated one, emphasizing further her belonging to the "male" realm. Whereas Rose's "man-ness" is based on a destructive rage, Caroline's is based on cold calculation, therefore she is more successful playing by the rules of the patriarchy. It must be remembered, however, that she is able to use the system because she has been shielded from its negative side. Ginny and Rose have always protected her from Larry's anger, incest, and complete suppression of their own identities. While Larry signifies so many things to the elder sisters, not least the horribly intimate -familiar- memories of incest, Caroline can say about him that he looks "as familiar as a father should look, no more, no less". In this, as Ginny replies, she is lucky. (362) Of course, saying that Caroline is like a man signals complicity with gender-stereotypes. She is a positive character in that she is assertive and self-contained, as when she criticizes Larry's idea to divide the farm.

Hamlet -- the Characterization Essay -- GCSE English Literature Course

Hamlet -- the Characterization      Ã‚  Ã‚   The beautifully developed characters within Shakespeare’s dramatic tragedy, Hamlet, are manifestations of genius. Let us in this essay tour the gallery of the Bard’s characters in this most famous play.    George Lyman Kittredge, in his book, Five Plays of Shakespeare, describes the Bard’s excellent characterization of Claudius:    King Claudius is a superb figure – almost as great a dramatic creation as Hamlet himself. His intellectual powers are of the highest order. He is eloquent – formal when formality is appropriate (as in the speech from the throne), graciously familiar when familiarity is in place (as is his treatment of the family of Polonius), persuasive to an almost superhuman degree (as in his manipulation of the insurgent Laertes) – always and everywhere a model of royal dignity. His courage is manifested, under the most terrifying circumstances, when the mob breaks into the palace. His self-control when the dumb show enacts his secret crime before his eyes is nothing less than marvelous. (xviii)    The genius of the Bard is revealed in his characterization. Brian Wilkie and James Hurt in Literature of the Western World examine the universal appeal of   Shakespeare resulting from his â€Å"sharply etched characters†:    Every age from Shakespeare’s time to the present has found something different in him to admire. All ages, however, have recognized his supreme skill in inventing sharply etched characters; it frequently happens that long after one has forgotten the exact story of a play one remembers its people with absolute vividness. It is true, paradoxically, that many of Shakespeare’s characters represent universal types.[. . .] Scores of them are fu... ...stitute of Technology. 1995. http://www.chemicool.com/Shakespeare/hamlet/full.html    West, Rebecca. â€Å"A Court and World Infected by the Disease of Corruption.† Readings on Hamlet. Ed. Don Nardo. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1999. Rpt. from The Court and the Castle. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1957.    Wilkie, Brian and James Hurt. â€Å"Shakespeare.† Literature of the Western World. Ed. Brian Wilkie and James Hurt. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1992.    Wilson, John Dover. What happens in Hamlet. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1959.    Wright, Louis B. and Virginia A. LaMar. â€Å"Hamlet: A Man Who Thinks Before He Acts.† Readings on Hamlet. Ed. Don Nardo. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1999. Rpt. from The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. Ed. Louis B. Wright and Virginia A. LaMar. N. p.: Pocket Books, 1958.         

Example Research: Critical Discourse Analysis

18 Critical Discourse Analysis TEUN A. VAN DIJK 0 Introduction: What Is Critical Discourse Analysis? Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is a type of discourse analytical research that primarily studies the way social power abuse, dominance, and inequality are enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in the social and political context. With such dissident research, critical discourse analysts take explicit position, and thus want to understand, expose, and ultimately resist social inequality.Some of the tenets of CDA can already be found in the critical theory of the Frankfurt School before the Second World War (Agger 1992b; Rasmussen 1996). Its current focus on language and discourse was initiated with the â€Å"critical linguistics† that emerged (mostly in the UK and Australia) at the end of the 1970s (Fowler et al. 1979; see also Mey 1985).CDA has also counterparts in â€Å"critical† developments in sociolinguistics, psychology, and the social sciences, some already dating back to the early 1970s (Birnbaum 1971; Calhoun 1995; Fay 1987; Fox and Prilleltensky 1997; Hymes 1972; Ibanez and Iniguez 1997; Singh 1996; Thomas 1993; Turkel 1996; Wodak 1996). As is the case in these neighboring disciplines, CDA may be seen as a reaction against the dominant formal (often â€Å"asocial† or â€Å"uncritical†) paradigms of the 1960s and 1970s.CDA is not so much a direction, school, or specialization next to the many other â€Å"approaches† in discourse studies. Rather, it aims to offer a different â€Å"mode† or â€Å"perspective† of theorizing, analysis, and application throughout the whole field. We may find a more or less critical perspective in such diverse areas as pragmatics, conversation analysis, narrative analysis, rhetoric, stylistics, sociolinguistics, ethnography, or media analysis, among others. Crucial for critical discourse analysts is the explicit awareness of their role in society.Continuing a tra dition that rejects the possibility of a â€Å"value-free† science, they argue that science, and especially scholarly discourse, are inherently part of and influenced by social structure, and produced in social interaction. Instead of denying or ignoring such a relation between scholarship and society, they plead that such relations be studied and accounted for in their own right, and that scholarly practices Critical Discourse Analysis 353 be based on such insights. Theory formation, description, and explanation, also in discourse analysis, are sociopolitically â€Å"situated,† whether we like it or not.Reflection on the role of scholars in society and the polity thus becomes an inherent part of the discourse analytical enterprise. This may mean, among other things, that discourse analysts conduct research in solidarity and cooperation with dominated groups. Critical research on discourse needs to satisfy a number of requirements in order to effectively realize its ai ms: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ As is often the case for more marginal research traditions, CDA research has to be â€Å"better† than other research in order to be accepted.It focuses primarily on , social problems and political issues, rather than on current paradigms and fashions. Empirically adequate critical analysis of social problems is usually multidisciplinary. Rather than merely describe discourse structures, it tries to explain them in terms of properties of social interaction and especially social structure. More specifically, CDA focuses on the ways discourse structures enact, confirm, legitimate, reproduce, or challenge relations of power and dominance in society. Fairclough and Wodak (1997: 271-80) summarize the main tenets of CDA as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. . 7. 8. CDA addresses social problems Power relations are discursive Discourse constitutes society and culture Discourse does ideological work Discourse is historical The link between text and soc iety is mediated Discourse analysis is interpretative and explanatory Discourse is a form of social action. Whereas some of these tenets have also been discussed above, others need a more systematic theoretical analysis, of which we shall present some fragments here as a more or less general basis for the main principles of CDA (for details about these aims of critical discourse and language studies, see, e. . , Caldas-Coulthard and Coulthard 1996; Fairclough 1992a, 1995a; Fairclough and Wodak 1997; Fowler et al. 1979; van Dijk 1993b). 1 Conceptual and Theoretical Frameworks Since CDA is not a specific direction of research, it does not have a unitary theoretical framework. Within the aims mentioned above, there are many types of CDA, and these may be theoretically and analytically quite diverse. Critical analysis of conversation is very different from an analysis of news reports in the press or of lessons and teaching at school.Yet, given the common perspective and the general aims of CDA, we may also find overall conceptual and theoretical frameworks that are closely related. As suggested, most kinds of CDA will ask questions about the way specific 354 Teun A. van Dijk discourse structures are deployed in the reproduction of social dominance, whether they are part of a conversation or a news report or other genres and contexts.Thus, the typical vocabulary of many scholars in CDA will feature such notions as â€Å"power,† â€Å"dominance,† â€Å"hegemony,† â€Å"ideology,† â€Å"class,† â€Å"gender,† â€Å"race,† â€Å"discrimination,† â€Å"interests,† â€Å"reproduction,† â€Å"institutions,† â€Å"social structure,† and â€Å"social order,† besides the more familiar discourse analytical notions. ‘ In this section, I focus on a number of basic concepts themselves, and thus devise a theoretical framework that critically relates discourse, cognition, and society. 1. 1 Macro vs. microLanguage use, discourse, verbal interaction, and communication belong to the microlevel of the social order. Power, dominance, and inequality between social groups are typically terms that belong to a macrolevel of analysis. This means that CDA has to theoretically bridge the well-known â€Å"gap† between micro and macro approaches, which is of course a distinction that is a sociological construct in its own right (Alexander et al. 1987; Knorr-Cetina and Cicourel 1981). In everyday interaction and experience the macro- and microlevel (and intermediary â€Å"mesolevels†) form one unified whole.For instance, a racist speech in parliament is a discourse at the microlevel of social interaction in the specific situation of a debate, but at the same time may enact or be a constituent part of legislation or the reproduction of racism at the macrolevel. There are several ways to analyze and bridge these levels, and thus to arrive at a unified critical anal ysis: Members–groups: Language users-engage in discourse as members of (several) social groups, organizations, or institutions; and conversely, groups thus may act â€Å"by† their members. Actions–process: Social acts of individual actors are thus constituent parts of group actions and social processes, such as legislation, newsmaking, or the reproduction of racism. 3 Context–social structure: Situations of discursive interaction are similarly part or constitutive of social structure; for example, a press conference may be a typical practice of organizations and media institutions. That is, â€Å"local† and more â€Å"global† contexts are closely related, and both exercise constraints on discourse. Personal and social cognition: Language users as social actors have both personal and social cognition: personal memories, knowledge and opinions, as well as those shared with members of the group or culture as a whole. Both types of cognition inf luence interaction and discourse of individual members, whereas shared â€Å"social representations† govern the collective actions of a group. 1 1. 2 Power as control A central notion in most critical work on discourse is that of power, and more specifically the social power of groups or institutions.Summarizing a complex philosophical and social analysis, we will define social power in terms of control. Thus, groups have Critical Discourse Analysis 355 (more or less) power if they are able to (more or less) control the acts and minds of (members of) other groups. This ability presupposes a power base of privileged access to scarce social resources, such as force, money, status, fame, knowledge, information, â€Å"culture,† or indeed various forms of public discourse and communication (of the vast literature on power, see, e. . , Lukes 1986; Wrong 1979). Different types of power may be distinguished according to the various resources employed to exercise such power: th e coercive power of the military and of violent men will rather be based on force, the rich will have power because of their money, whereas the more or less persuasive power of parents, professors, or journalists may be based on knowledge, information, or authority. Note also that power is seldom absolute.Groups may more or less control other groups, or only control them in specific situations or social domains. Moreover, dominated groups may more or less resist, accept, condone, comply with, or legitimate such power, and even find it â€Å"natural. † The power of dominant groups may be integrated in laws, rules, norms, habits, and even a quite general consensus, and thus take the form of what Gramsci called â€Å"hegemony† (Gramsci 1971). Class domination, sexism, and racism are characteristic examples of such hegemony.Note also that power is not always exercised in obviously abusive acts of dominant group members, but may be enacted in the myriad of taken-for-granted actions of everyday life, as is typically the case in the many forms of everyday sexism or racism (Essed 1991). Similarly, not all members of a powerful group are always more powerful than all members of dominated groups: power is only defined here for groups as a whole. For our analysis of the relations between discourse and power, thus, we first find that access to specific forms of discourse, e. . those of politics, the media, or science, is itself a power resource. Secondly, as suggested earlier, action is controlled by our minds. So, if we are able to influence people's minds, e. g. their knowledge or opinions, we indirectly may control (some of) their actions, as we know from persuasion and manipulation. Closing the discourse–power circle, finally, this means that those groups who control most influential discourse also have more chances to control the minds and actions of others.Simplifying these very intricate relationships even further for this chapter, we can split up the issue of discursive power into two basic questions for CDA research: 1 How do (more) powerful groups control public discourse? 2 How does such discourse control mind and action of (less) powerful groups, and what are the social consequences of such control, such as social inequality? I address each question below. ‘ 1. 2. 1 Control of public discourseWe have seen that among many other resources that define the power base of a group or institution, access to or control over public discourse and communication is an important â€Å"symbolic† resource, as is the case for knowledge and information (van Dijk 1996). Most people have active control only over everyday talk with family members, friends, or colleagues, and passive control over, e. g. media usage. In many 356 Teun A. van Dijk situations, ordinary people are more or less passive targets of text or talk, e. g. f their bosses or teachers, or of the authorities, such as police officers, judges, welfare bureaucr ats, or tax inspectors, who may simply tell them what (not) to believe or what to do. On the other hand, members of more powerful social groups and institutions, and especially their leaders (the elites), have more or less exclusive access to, and control over, one or more types of public discourse. Thus, professors control scholarly discourse, teachers educational discourse, journalists media discourse, lawyers legal discourse, and politicians policy and other public political discourse.Those who have more control over more — and more influential — discourse (and more discourse properties) are by that definition also more powerful. In other words, we here propose a discursive definition (as well as a practical diagnostic) of one of the crucial constituents of social power. These notions of discourse access and control are very general, and it is one of the tasks of CDA to spell out these forms of power. Thus, if discourse is defined in terms of complex communicative e vents, access and control may be defined both for the context and for the structures of text and talk themselves.Context is defined as the mentally represented structure of those properties of the social situation that are relevant for the production or comprehension of discourse (Duranti and Goodwin 1992; van Dijk 1998b). It consists of such categories as the overall definition of the situation, setting (time, place), ongoing actions (including discourses and discourse genres), participants in various communicative, social, or institutional roles, as well as their mental representations: goals, knowledge, opinions, attitudes, and ideologies. Controlling context involves control over one or more of these categories, e. . determining the definition of the communicative situation, deciding on time and place of the communicative event, or on which participants may or must be present, and in which roles, or what knowledge or opinions they should (not) have, and which social actions may or must be accomplished by discourse. Also crucial in the enactment or exercise of group power is control not only over content, but over the structures of text and talk. Relating text and context, thus, we already saw that (members of) powerful groups may decide on the (possible) discourse genre(s) or speech acts of an occasion.A teacher or judge may require a direct answer from a student or suspect, respectively, and not a personal story or an argument (Wodak 1984a, 1986). More critically, we may examine how powerful speakers may abuse their power in such situations, e. g. when police officers use force to get a confession from a suspect (Linell and Jonsson 1991), or when male editors exclude women from writing economic news (van Zoonen 1994). Similarly, genres typically have conventional schemas consisting of various categories. Access to some of these may be prohibited or obligatory, e. . some greetings in a conversation may only be used by speakers of a specific social group, r ank, age, or gender (Irvine 1974). Also vital for all discourse and communication is who controls the topics (semantic macrostructures) and topic change, as when editors decide what news topics will be covered (Gans 1979; van Dijk 1988a, 1988b), professors decide what topics will be dealt with in class, or men control topics and topic change in conversations with women (Palmer 1989; Fishman 1983; Leet-Pellegrini 1980; Lindegren-Lerman 1983).Critical Discourse Analysis 357 Although most discourse control is contextual or global, even local details of meaning, form, or style may be controlled, e. g. the details of an answer in class or court, or choice of lexical items or jargon in courtrooms, classrooms or newsrooms (Martin Rojo 1994). In many situations, volume may be controlled and speakers ordered to â€Å"keep their voice down† or to â€Å"keep quiet,† women may be â€Å"silenced† in many ways (Houston and Kramarae 1991), and in some cultures one needs to â⠂¬Å"mumble† as a form of respect (Albert 1972).The public use of specific words may be banned as subversive in a dictatorship, and discursive challenges to culturally dominant groups (e. g. white, western males) by their multicultural opponents may be ridiculed in the media as â€Å"politically correct† (Williams 1995). And finally, action and interaction dimensions of discourse may be controlled by prescribing or proscribing specific speech acts, and by selectively distributing or interrupting turns (see also Diamond 1996).In sum, virtually all levels and structures of context, text, and talk can in principle be more or less controlled by powerful speakers, and such power may be abused at the expense of other participants. It should, however, be stressed that talk and text do not always and directly enact or embody the overall power relations between groups: it is always the context that may interfere with, reinforce, or otherwise transform such relationships. 1. 2. 2 Mind control If controlling discourse is a first major form of power, controlling people's minds is the other fundamental way to reproduce dominance and hegemony. Within a CDA framework, â€Å"mind control† involves even more than just acquiring beliefs about the world through discourse and communication. Suggested below are ways that power and dominance are involved in mind control. First, recipients tend to accept beliefs, knowledge, and opinions (unless they are inconsistent with their personal beliefs and experiences) through discourse from what they see as authoritative, trustworthy, or credible sources, such as scholars, experts, professionals, or reliable media (Nesler et al. 1993). Second, in some situations participants are obliged to be recipients of discourse, e. . in education and in many job situations. Lessons, learning materials, job instructions, and other discourse types in such cases may need to be attended to, interpreted, and learned as intended by institu tional or organizational authors (Giroux 1981). Third, in many situations there are no pubic discourses or media that may provide information from which alternative beliefs may be derived (Downing 1984). Fourth, and closely related to the previous points, recipients may not have the knowledge and beliefs needed to challenge the discourses or information they are exposed to (Wodak 1987).Whereas these conditions of mind control are largely contextual (they say something about the participants of a communicative event), other conditions are discursive, that is, a function of the structures and strategies of text or talk itself. In other words, given a specific context, certain meanings and forms of discourse have more influence on people's minds than others, as the very notion of â€Å"persuasion† and a tradition of 2000 years of rhetoric may show. ‘ Once we have elementary insight into some of the structures of the mind, and what it means to control it, the crucial questi on is how discourse and its structures are able 58 Teun A. van Dijk to exercise such control. As suggested above, such discursive influence may be due to context as well as to the structures of text and talk themselves. Contextually based control derives from the fact that people understand and represent not only text and talk, but also the whole communicative situation. Thus, CDA typically studies how context features (such as the properties of language users of powerful groups) influence the ways members of dominated groups define the communicative situation in â€Å"preferred context models† (Martin Rojo and van Dijk 1997).CDA also focuses on how discourse structures influence mental representations. At the global level of discourse, topics may influence what people see as the most important information of text or talk, and thus correspond to the top levels of their mental models. For example, expressing such a topic in a headline in news may powerfully influence how an ev ent is defined in terms of a â€Å"preferred† mental model (e. g. when crime committed by minorities is typically topicalized and headlined in the press: Duin et al. 988; van Dijk 1991). Similarly, argumentation may be persuasive because of the social opinions that are â€Å"hidden† in its implicit premises and thus taken for granted by the recipients, e. g. immigration may thus be restricted if it is presupposed in a parliamentary debate that all refugees are â€Å"illegal† (see the contributions in Wodak and van Dijk 2000) Likewise, at the local level, in order to understand discourse meaning and coherence, people may need models featuring beliefs that remain implicit (presupposed) in discourse.Thus, a typical feature of manipulation is to communicate beliefs implicitly, that is, without actually asserting them, and with less chance that they will be challenged. These few examples show how various types of discourse structure may influence the formation and ch ange of mental models and social representations. If dominant groups, and especially their elites, largely control public discourse and its structures, they thus also have more control over the minds of the public at large. However, such control has its limits.The complexity of comprehension, and the formation and change of beliefs, are such that one cannot always predict which features of a specific text or talk will have which effects on the minds of specific recipients. These brief remarks have provided us with a very general picture of how discourse is involved in dominance (power abuse) and in the production and reproduction of social inequality. It is the aim of CDA to examine these relationships in more detail. In the next section, we review several areas of CDA research in which these relationships are investigated. ‘ 2 Research in Critical Discourse AnalysisAlthough most discourse studies dealing with any aspect of power, domination, and social inequality have not bee n explicitly conducted under the label of CDA, we shall nevertheless refer to some of these studies below. 2. 1 Gender inequality One vast field of critical research on discourse and language that thus far has not been carried out within a CDA perspective is that of gender. In many ways, feminist Critical Discourse Analysis 359 work has become paradigmatic for much discourse analysis, especially since much of this work explicitly deals with social inequality and domination.We will not review it here; see Kendall and Tannen, this volume; also the books authored and edited by, e. g. , Cameron (1990, 1992); Kotthoff and Wodak (1997); Seidel (1988); Thorne et al. (1983); Wodak (1997); for discussion and comparison with an approach that emphasizes cultural differences rather than power differences and inequality, see, e. g. , Tannen (1994a); see also Tannen (1994) for an analysis of gender differences at work, in which many of the properties of discursive dominance are dealt with. 2. 2 M edia discourseThe undeniable power of the media has inspired many critical studies in many disciplines: linguistics, semiotics, pragmatics, and discourse studies. Traditional, often content analytical approaches in critical media studies have revealed biased, stereotypical, sexist or racist images in texts, illustrations, and photos. Early studies of media language similarly focused on easily observable surface structures, such as the biased or partisan use of words in the description of Us and Them (and Our/Their actions and characteristics), especially along sociopolitical lines in the representation of communists.The critical tone was set by a series of â€Å"Bad News† studies by the Glasgow University Media Group (1976, 1980, 1982, 1985, 1993) on features of TV reporting, such as in the coverage of various issues (e. g. industrial disputes (strikes), the Falklands (Malvinas) war, the media coverage of AIDS. ) Perhaps best known outside of discourse studies is the media re search carried out by Stuart Hall and his associates within the framework of the cultural studies paradigm. (See, e. g. , Hall et al. 1980; for introduction to the critical work of cultural studies, see Agger 1992a; see also Collins et al. 986; for earlier critical approaches to the analysis of media images, see also Davis and Walton 1983; and for a later CDA approach to media studies that is related to the critical approach of cultural studies, see Fairclough 1995b. See also Cotter, this volume. ) An early collection of work of Roger Fowler and his associates (Fowler et al. 1979) also focused on the media. As with many other English and Australian studies in this paradigm, the theoretical framework of Halliday's functional-systemic grammar is used in a study of the â€Å"transitivity† of syntactic patterns of sentences (see Martin, this volume).The point of such research is that events and actions may be described with syntactic variations that are a function of the underlyi ng involvement of actors (e. g. their agency, responsibility, and perspective). Thus, in an analysis of the media accounts of the â€Å"riots† during a minority festival, the responsibility of the authorities and especially of the police in such violence may be systematically de-emphasized by defocusing, e. g. by passive constructions and nominalizations; that is, by leaving agency and responsibility implicit.Fowler's later critical studies of the media continue this tradition, but also pay tribute to the British cultural studies paradigm that defines news not as a reflection of reality, but as a product shaped by political, economic, and cultural forces (Fowler 1991). More than in much other critical work on the media, he also focuses on the linguistic â€Å"tools† for such a critical study, such as the analysis of transitivity in syntax, lexical structure, modality, and speech acts.Similarly van Dijk (1988b) applies a theory of news discourse (van Dijk 1988a) in 360 Teun A. van Dijk critical studies of international news, racism in the press, and the coverage of squatters in Amsterdam. 2. 3 Political discourse Given the role of political discourse in the enactment, reproduction, and legitimization of power and domination, we may also expect many critical discourse studies of political text and talk (see Wilson, this volume).So far most of this work has been carried out by linguists and discourse analysts, because political science is among the few social disciplines in which discourse analysis has remained virtually unknown, although there is some influence of â€Å"postmodern† approaches to discourse (Derian and Shapiro 1989; Fox and Miller 1995), and many studies of political communication and rhetoric overlap with a discourse analytical approach (Nimmo and Sanders 1981).Still closer to discourse analysis is the current approach to â€Å"frames† (conceptual structures or sets of beliefs that organize political thought, policies, and discourse) in the analysis of political text and talk (Gamson 1992). In linguistics, pragmatics, and discourse studies, political discourse has received attention outside the more theoretical mainstream. Seminal work comes from Paul Chilton; see, e. g. , his collection on the language of the nuclear arms debate (Chilton 1985), as well as later work on contemporary nukespeak (Chilton 1988) and metaphor (Chilton 1996; Chilton and Lakoff 1995).Although studies of political discourse in English are internationally best known because of the hegemony of English, much work has been done (often earlier, and often more systematic and explicit) in German, Spanish, and French. This work is too extensive to even begin to review here beyond naming a few influential studies. Germany has a long tradition of political discourse analysis, both (then) in the West (e. g. about Bonn's politicians by Zimmermann 1969), as well as in the former East (e. g. he semiotic-materialist theory of Klaus 1971 ) (see also the introduction by Bachem 1979). This tradition in Germany witnessed a study of the language of war and peace (Pasierbsky 1983) and of speech acts in political discourse (Holly 1990). There is also a strong tradition of studying fascist language and discourse (e. g. the lexicon, propaganda, media, and language politics; Ehlich 1989). In France, the study of political language has a respectable tradition in linguistics and discourse analysis, also because the barrier between (mostly structuralist) inguistic theory and text analysis was never very pronounced. Discourse studies are often corpus-based and there has been a strong tendency toward formal, quantitative, and automatic (content) analysis of such big datasets, often combined with critical ideological analysis (Pecheux 1969, 1982; Guespin 1976). The emphasis on automated analysis usually implies a focus on (easily quantifiable) lexical analyses (see Stubbs, this volume).Critical political discourse studies in Spain and especially also in Latin America has been very productive. Famous is the early critical semiotic (anticolonialist) study of Donald Duck by Dorfman and Mattelart (1972) in Chile. Lavandera et al. (1986, 1987) in Argentina take an influential sociolinguistic approach to political discourse, e. g. its typology of authoritarian discourse. Work of this group has been continued and organized in a more explicit CDA framework especially by Pardo (see, e. g. her work Critical Discourse Analysis 361 on legal discourse; Pardo 1996). In Mexico, a detailed ethnographic discourse analysis of local authority and decision-making was carried out by Sierra (1992). Among the many other critical studies in Latin America, we should mention the extensive work of Teresa CarbO on parliamentary discourse in Mexico, focusing especially on the way delegates speak about native Americans (CarbO 1995), with a study in English on interruptions in these debates (CarbO 1992). . 4 Ethnocentrism, antisemitism, n ationalism, and racism The study of the role of discourse in the enactment and reproduction of ethnic and â€Å"racial† inequality has slowly emerged in CDA. Traditionally, such work focused on ethnocentric and racist representations in the mass media, literature, and film (Dines and Humez 1995; UNESCO 1977; Wilson and Gutierrez 1985; Hartmann and Husband 1974; van Dijk 1991).Such representations continue centuries-old dominant images of the Other in the discourses of European travelers, explorers, merchants, soldiers, philosophers, and historians, among other forms of elite discourse (Barker 1978; Lauren 1988). Fluctuating between the emphasis on exotic difference, on the one hand, and supremacist derogation stressing the Other's intellectual, moral, and biological inferiority, on the other hand, such discourses also influenced public opinion and led to broadly shared social representations.It is the continuity of this sociocultural tradition of negative images about the Oth er that also partly explains the persistence of dominant patterns of representation in contemporary discourse, media, and film (Shohat and Stam 1994). Later discourse studies have gone beyond the more traditional, content analytical analysis of â€Å"images† of the Others, and probed more deeply into the linguistic, semiotic, and other discursive properties of text and talk to and about minorities, immigrants, and Other peoples (for detailed review, see Wodak and Reisigl, this volume).Besides the mass media, advertising, film, and textbooks, which were (and still are) the genres most commonly studied, this newer work also focuses on political discourse, scholarly discourse, everyday conversations, service encounters, talk shows, and a host of other genres. Many studies on ethnic and racial inequality reveal a remarkable similarity among the stereotypes, prejudices, and other forms of verbal derogation across discourse types, media, and national boundaries.For example, in a va st research program carried out at the University of Amsterdam since the early 1980s, we examined how Surinamese, Turks, and Moroccans, and ethnic relations generally, are represented in conversation, everyday stories, news reports, textbooks, parliamentary debates, corporate discourse, and scholarly text and talk (van Dijk 1984, 1987a, 1987b, 1991, 1993). Besides stereotypical topics of difference, deviation, and threat, story structures, conversational features (such as hesitations and repairs in mentioning Others), semantic moves such as disclaimers (â€Å"We have nothing against blacks, but . . . , etc. ), lexical description of Others, and a host of other discourse features also were studied. The aim of these projects was to show how discourse expresses and reproduces underlying social representations of Others in the social and political context. Ter Wal (1997) applies this framework in a detailed study of the ways Italian political and media discourse gradually changed, from an antiracist commitment and benign representation 362 Teun A. van Dijk of the â€Å"extracommunitari† (non-Europeans) to a more stereotypical and negative por- trayal of immigrants in terms of crime, deviance, and threat. The major point f our work is that racism (including antisemitism, xenophobia, and related forms of resentment against â€Å"racially† or ethnically defined Others) is a complex system of social and political inequality that is also reproduced by discourse in general, and by elite discourses in particular (see further references in Wodak and Reisigl, this volume). Instead of further elaborating the complex details of the theoretical relationships between discourse and racism, we shall refer to a book that may be taken as a prototype of conservative elite discourse on â€Å"race† today, namely, The End of Racism by Dinesh D'Souza (1995).This text embodies many of the dominant ideologies in the USA, especially on the right, and it specifically targets one minority group in the USA: African Americans. Space prohibits detailed analysis of this 700-page book (but see van Dijk 1998a). Here we can merely summarize how the CDA of D'Souza's The End of Racism shows what kind of discursive structures, strategies, and moves are deployed in exercising the power of the dominant (white, western, male) group, and how readers are manipulated to form or confirm the social representations that are consistent with a conservative, supremacist ideology.The overall strategy of D'Souza's The End of Racism is the combined implementation, at all levels of the text, of the positive presentation of the in-group and the negative presentation of the out-group. In D'Souza's book, the principal rhetorical means are those of hyperbole and metaphor, viz. , the exaggerated representation of social problems in terms of illness (â€Å"pathologies,† â€Å"virus†), and the emphasis of the contrast between the Civilized and the Barbarians. Seman tically and lexically, the Others are thus associated not simply with difference, but rather with deviance (â€Å"illegitimacy†) and threat (violence, attacks).Argumentative assertions of the depravity of black culture are combined with denials of white deficiencies (racism), with rhetorical mitigation and euphemization of its crimes (colonialism, slavery), and with semantic reversals of blame (blaming the victim). Social conflict is thus cognitively represented and enhanced by polarization, and discursively sustained and reproduced by derogating, demonizing, and excluding the Others from the community of Us, the Civilized. 2. From group domination to professional and institutional power We have reviewed in this section critical studies of the role of discourse in the (re)production inequality. Such studies characteristically exemplify the CDA perspective on power abuse and dominance by specific social groups. ‘ Many other studies, whether under the CDA banner or not, a lso critically examine various genres of institutional and professional discourse, e. g. text and talk in the courtroom (see Shuy, this volume; Danet 1984; O'Barr et al. 978; Bradac et al. 1981; Ng and Bradac 1993; Lakoff 1990; Wodak 1984a; Pardo 1996; Shuy 1992), bureaucratic discourse (Burton and Carlen 1979; Radtke 1981), medical discourse (see Ainsworth-Vaughn and Fleischman, this volume; Davis 1988; Fisher 1995; Fisher and Todd 1986; Mishler 1984; West 1984; Wodak 1996), educational and scholarly discourse (Aronowitz 1988; Critical Discourse Analysis 363 Apple 1979; Bourdieu 1984, 1989; Bernstein 1975, 1990; Bourdieu et al. 1994; Giroux 1981; Willis 1977; Atkinson et al. 995; Coulthard 1994; Duszak 1997; Fisher and Todd 1986; Mercer 1995; Wodak 1996; Bergvall and Remlinger 1996; Ferree and Hall 1996; Jaworski 1983; Leimdorfer 1992; Osler 1994; Said 1979; Smith 1991; van Dijk 1987, 1993), and corporate discourse (see Linde, this volume; Mumby 1988; Boden 1994; Drew and Heritage 1992; Ehlich 1995; Mumby 1993; Mumby and Clair 1997), among many other sets of genres. In all these cases, power and dominance are associated with specific social domains (politics, media, law, education, science, etc. , their professional elites and institutions, and the rules and routines that form the background of the everyday discursive reproduction of power in such domains and institutions. The victims or targets of such power are usually the public or citizens at large, the â€Å"masses,† clients, subjects, the audience, students, and other groups that are dependent on institutional and organizational power. 3 Conclusion We have seen in this chapter that critical discourse analyses deal with the relationship between discourse and power.We have also sketched the complex theoretical framework needed to analyze discourse and power, and provided a glimpse of the many ways in which power and domination are reproduced by text and talk. Yet several methodological and theoreti cal gaps remain. First, the cognitive interface between discourse structures and those of the local and global social context is seldom made explicit, and appears usually only in terms of the notions of knowledge and ideology (van Dijk 1998).Thus, despite a large number of empirical studies on discourse and power, the details of the multidisciplinary theory of CDA that should relate discourse and action with cognition and society are still on the agenda. Second, there is still a gap between more linguistically oriented studies of text and talk and the various approaches in the social. The first often ignore concepts and theories in sociology and political science on power abuse and inequality, whereas the second seldom engage in detailed discourse analysis. Integration of various approaches is therefore very important to arrive at a satisfactory form of multidisciplinary CDA.NOTES I am indebted to Ruth Wodak for her comments on an earlier version of this chapter, and to Laura Pardo for further information, about CDA research in Latin America. 1 It comes as no surprise, then, that CDA research will often refer to the leading social philosophers and social scientists of our time when theorizing these and other fundamental notions. Thus, reference to the leading scholars of the Frankfurter School and to contemporary work by Habermas (for instance, on legitimation and his last â€Å"discourse† approach to norms and democracy) is of course common in critical analysis. Similarly, many critical studies will refer to Foucault 64 Teun A. van Dijk when dealing with notions such as power, domination, and discipline or the more philosophical notion of â€Å"orders of discourse. † More recently, the many studies on language, culture, and society by Bourdieu have become increasingly influential; for instance, his notion of â€Å"habitus. † From another sociological perspective, Giddens's structuration theory is now occasionally mentioned. It should be b orne in mind that although several of these social philosophers and sociologists make extensive use of the notions of language and discourse, they seldom engage in explicit, systematic discourse analysis.Indeed, the last thing critical discourse scholars should do is to uncritically adopt philosophical or sociological ideas about language and discourse that are obviously uninformed by advances in contemporary linguistics and discourse analysis. Rather, the work referred to here is mainly relevant for the use of fundamental concepts about the social order and hence for the metatheory of CDA. 2 Space limitations prevent discussion of a third issue: how dominated groups discursively challenge or resist the control of powerful groups. 3 Note that â€Å"mind control† is merely a handy phrase to summarize a very complex process.Cognitive psychology and mass communication research have shown that influencing the mind is not as straightforward a process as simplistic ideas about mind control might suggest (Britton and Graesser 1996; Glasser and Salmon 1995; Klapper 1960; van Dijk and Kintsch 1983). Recipients may vary in their interpretation and uses of text and talk, also as a function of class, gender, or culture (Liebes and Katz 1990). Likewise, recipients seldom passively accept the intended opinions of specific discourses. However, we should not forget that most of our beliefs about the world are acquired through discourse. In order to analyze the complex processes involved in how discourse may control people's minds, we would need to spell out the detailed mental representations and cognitive operations studied in cognitive science. Since even an adequate summary is beyond the scope of this chapter, we will only briefly introduce a few notions that are necessary to understand the processes of discursive mind control (for details, see, e. g. , Graesser and Bower 1990; van Dijk and Kintsch 1983; van Oostendorp and Zwaan 1994; Weaver et al. 1995). 5 Note tha t the picture just sketched is very schematic and general.The relations between the social power of groups and institutions, on the one hand, and discourse on the other, as well as between discourse and cognition, and cognition and society, are vastly more complex. There are many contradictions. 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